Political Engagement & Gender Gap

• Political engagement includes activities such as voting, campaign involvement, protesting, contacting officials, and running for office.

Political Engagement & Gender Gap

• Women tend to show lower political engagement due to gender socialization, which discourages them from pursuing political knowledge or leadership from a young age.
• Women are more likely to believe their participation will not make a difference, leading to lower political efficacy.
• Women are often burdened with a "double shift" of paid and unpaid labor, which limits their time for political engagement.
• Women are less likely to feel knowledgeable or competent enough to engage, even when equally qualified.
• Civic skills learned in workplaces are unequally distributed by gender, which explains lower female engagement, according to research by Burns, Schlozman, and Verba (2001).

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) & Political Participation

• The BSRI classifies people based on masculine (assertive, dominant, independent) and feminine (empathetic, nurturing, cooperative) personality traits.
• Androgynous individuals (high in both masculine and feminine traits) tend to be the most politically engaged.
• Undifferentiated individuals (low in both masculine and feminine traits) are the least engaged.
• Traits, rather than biological sex, are strong predictors of political behavior.
• Androgynous personalities blend assertiveness with empathy, making them ideal for political action and activism.

Partisan Gender Gap

• The partisan gender gap refers to the difference in political party support between men and women.
• Women are more likely to vote Democratic, while men are more likely to vote Republican.
• The gap emerged in the early 1980s after Reagan's election.
• Women generally support government social programs, gun control, and less aggressive foreign policy.
• Men tend to support deregulation, military spending, tax cuts, and traditional gender roles.
• In 2016, Clinton won the female vote by 13 points, while Trump won the male vote by 11 points.

Gender Stereotypes in Politics

• Male candidates are often associated with issues such as the economy, defense, and crime.
• Female candidates are often associated with issues such as healthcare, education, and family policy.
• Men are stereotyped as strong, decisive, and assertive.
• Women are stereotyped as caring, honest, and emotional.
• Stereotypes can benefit women in legislative races but hurt them in executive races.

Legislative vs Executive Branch Politics

• Legislative roles emphasize negotiation and local representation, aligning with "feminine" traits and creating a more female-friendly environment.
• Executive roles emphasize authority, command, and leadership, aligning with "masculine" traits and leading to greater scrutiny of women.
• Women face greater bias and backlash when running for executive offices.

What Limits Gender Stereotypes in House Elections?

• Incumbency advantage reduces reliance on stereotypes.
• Local races are less visible and less influenced by national media framing.
• Partisanship trumps gender in voting decisions.
• Constituent familiarity reduces reliance on superficial cues.

Why Do Incumbents Win in Congress?

• Incumbents have name recognition and access to campaign funding.
• Gerrymandering creates safe districts for incumbents.
• Incumbents provide constituent services (casework).
• Weak challengers often avoid running against incumbents.
• High barriers for non-incumbents make it difficult for women to break into politics, and most incumbents are men.

Women in Congress (Representation Today)

• Approximately 29% of House representatives are women as of 2024.
• Approximately 25% of Senators are women.
• Women, especially women of color, are still underrepresented in Congress.

Differences in Legislator Behavior

• Women in Congress sponsor and co-sponsor more bills on education, family, and health.
• Women in Congress are more collaborative and bipartisan.
• They are more responsive to constituent needs.
• Women introduce more legislation, especially when in the minority party.
• Women face greater scrutiny and are less likely to be seen as leaders.

Types of Representation

• Descriptive representation means that the representative shares identity traits with the represented (e.g., gender, race).
• Symbolic representation means that representation signals group inclusion or social progress.
• Substantive representation means acting in the interest of a group, regardless of identity.
• Descriptive representation does not always lead to substantive outcomes but can increase trust in government.

Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI)

• The ASI was developed by Glick & Fiske, and has two forms, hostile and benevolent.
• Hostile sexism involves open antagonism toward women. For example, "Women try to control men."
• Benevolent sexism involves paternalistic or protective attitudes. For example, "Women should be cherished and protected by men."
• Both forms uphold traditional gender hierarchies.

System Justification Theory

• People are motivated to defend existing social systems, even when they're unjust.
• This theory explains why some women may accept sexist beliefs.
• Benevolent sexism feels comforting and non-threatening but still reinforces gender inequality.
• It is related to why benevolent sexists still supported Trump over Clinton.

2016 Election & Sexism

• High hostile sexism predicted strong Trump support.
• Benevolent sexism also predicted support for Trump, though less strongly.
• Clinton’s candidacy triggered gender role threat among some men and women.

Reactions to Corruption/Sex Scandals

• Hostile sexists are more forgiving of male politicians’ scandals.
• Female politicians are judged more harshly for the same behavior.
• This reflects a double standard in public perception and accountability.

Gender Role Threat

• Gender role threat is the perception that traditional masculinity is being challenged.
• Gender role threat can result in increased support for male authoritarian leaders, resistance to female leadership, and endorsement of stricter gender norms.

Maternal Appeals in Campaigns

• Women candidates may frame themselves as mothers to evoke trust, care, and moral authority.
• This has strong effects through priming emotional and familial associations.
• It can increase likability but also reinforce traditional gender roles.

What Affects Framing Effectiveness?

• Framing is more effective when the audience has low prior knowledge, the message aligns with existing values, and the issue is unfamiliar or ambiguous.
• Framing is less effective when people have strong preexisting opinions and politically knowledgeable voters resist influence.

Backlash Against Power-Seeking Women

• Women seen as “too ambitious” face backlash and lower likability.
• They are judged more negatively for traits valued in men, such as assertiveness.
• They are called “unlikable” or “cold” when showing leadership.
• Women face a double bind, because to be competent, they risk being disliked.

Why Women Run Less

• Women are less likely to be encouraged or recruited to run for office.
• They have a lower self-perception of their qualifications.
• They have greater concern about negative campaigning and work-life balance.
• Internalized gender norms limit their ambition.
• Even equally qualified women are less likely to express political ambition than men.