Asylum in Italy (2008-2022)

• This study analyzes asylum application decisions in Italy from 2008 to 2022
• It uses Eurostat data with indicators of political conditions and gender discrimination in applicants' countries of origin

Key Findings

• A limited 'female advantage' exists in asylum applications
• The relationship between gender, origin country, and asylum decisions is complex
• The advantage for women depends on their country of origin

Country of Origin Impact

• In countries with war, autocracy, or severe discrimination, applicant gender does not significantly affect asylum decisions
• Recognition rates are high for both men and women in these countries
• Women from countries with moderate political and discrimination issues have higher asylum application success rates than men

Importance of Gender Intersectionality

• Understanding how gender intersects with other factors in asylum decisions is crucial
• This understanding can help develop more equitable asylum policies and practices

Background

• A gendered framework in asylum and refugee studies is relatively recent
• Concerns about women in forced migration gained attention in the 1980s
• The focus on women's issues developed slowly until the 1990s
• Women comprise over half of the global refugee population, totaling 34.6 million in 2022
• International reports highlight disproportionate effects on women in displacement situations

Asylum Application Statistics

• Women lodged only 29% of asylum applications in EU+ countries in 2022
• This gap suggests women face more obstacles than men in seeking asylum in Europe
• These obstacles include high travel costs, reliance on smugglers, and risk of violence

Challenges Specific to Women

• Women face elevated risks of physical and sexual violence during travel
• Women experience disproportionately higher mortality rates at borders
• This leads to women being a minority seeking asylum in the Global North
• Women often form a significant proportion of vulnerable adults, impacting mobility and trajectory

Analysis of Gender Differences

• Recent qualitative analysis reflects how gender shapes refugee experiences in the Global North
• Gender differences in asylum recognition in Europe have been largely overlooked

Conventions Based on Male Model

• International laws and conventions are often based on a male model of asylum seeker and refugee
• This model ignores typical grounds for women's persecution
• Gender-specific persecution grounds like rape, sexual violence, and culturally based norms are a minority of claims

Mixed Evidence on Gender Impact

• The impact of an applicant's gender on asylum decisions is ambiguous
• Some studies suggest women are underrepresented among successful asylum seekers
• Other research finds no discernible effects or a relative advantage for female asylum seekers
• Recent findings indicate women in Europe tend to be more successful in applications and appeals
• German data from 2012-2018 shows significant gender variations in asylum recognition rates across countries

Lack of Gendered Approach

• Procedures for asylum often lack a gendered approach
• There is no common EU definition of gender-based persecution
• Extended reflection on gender's correlation to asylum seeker rejection rates is absent in reports and commentaries

Study Aim

• This paper analyzes decisions on asylum applications in Italy from 2008-2022
• Italy's geographical position has led to a surge in asylum requests
• The study aims to address the effects of changes in acceptance rates due to gender

Recognition Rates

• Findings are mixed depending on the ground of analysis and context
• Legislation does not differentiate between male and female asylum seekers
• Historical and sociological factors have advantaged men
• Other gendered mechanisms related to stereotyping and demographics could favor women

Asylum and Refugee Laws

• Critics argue that laws related to asylum and refugees undervalue the extent of persecution faced by women
• The Refugee Convention was drafted with "complete blindness to women, gender, and issues of sexual inequality"

Gender Dynamics

• Men are expected to face more political repression, while women share social group oppression
• Asylum law favors male-dominated 'public' political activities over women's 'private' sphere activities
• Persecution instances particular to women or historically viewed as belonging to the 'domestic' sphere are less clearly covered by conventions
• Women are more exposed to private forms of violence

Gender and Asylum

• Threats like forced marriage, FGM, or violence related to women's behavior are challenging to prove or recognize for refugee status
• Victims of spousal abuse and rape by authority figures face difficulties in presenting cases
• Being a woman puts individuals at a disadvantage, possibly resulting in fewer instances of full asylum protection

Stereotyping

• Gendered mechanisms related to asylum seeker stereotyping impact recognition rates
• Individuals in the Global South are perceived as genuine, immobile, depoliticized, and feminized
• Those moving, especially to the Global North, are viewed negatively as liabilities or security threats, with young men being particularly associated with this perception
• The gendered imagery shifted the representation of refugees from heroic European men to depoliticized mothers and children

Stereotypes in Favor of Women

• This imaginary might actively bias decision rates in favor of women
• A general preference for women emerged from recent experimental survey research
• Survey participants show a preference for female asylum-seekers
• Gendered stereotypes in asylum advocacy generate a perception of female applicants as more 'vulnerable and dependent' and 'less adventurous.'

Vulnerability and Stereotyping

• Scholars note the focus on women's vulnerability and cultural stereotyping as pure victims is problematic and disempowering
• This might explain a gender gap in favor of women, especially if they migrate with children and are underrepresented

Demographic Factors

• Demographic characteristics more common among women may affect asylum application success
• Being married or having children can increase the likelihood of being granted asylum
• In the Netherlands, men had a lower success rate due to being less likely to be married or accompanied by children
• A small proportion of women seeking asylum (minority status) may be a factor in their favor

Other Factors

• Female applicants have a higher chance of success when controlling for regions of origin
• The gender gap is even wider if the person deciding the case is male and handles a large number of cases
• A relative advantage for women could be due to selection and stereotyping
• Women are selected in terms of fewer applicants, disproportionate origin from countries with high recognition, and greater severity Selection implies only women with the strongest cases overcome hurdles in accessing asylum systems
• The concept of vulnerability plays a crucial role, with women more likely to be classified as vulnerable due to factors like pregnancy and single parenthood

Asylum in Italy

• Italy received an unprecedented number of asylum applications between 2014-2018
• The number of applications has risen again since 2021
• Italy has received a high number of asylum applications in recent decades
• Around 810,000 applicants claimed asylum in Italy between 2008 and 2022, 16.5% of whom were women

Demographics of Asylum Seekers

• The highest number of female asylum seekers was among Nigerians, Ukrainians, and Georgians
• Among groups with at least 100 applicants, the lowest male-to-female ratios are among those from Kyrgyzstan, Georgia, and the Philippines

Italian Legislation

• For a long time, Italy had limited regulation regarding the recognition of refugee status
• Italy has demonstrated a proactive stance in combating gender discrimination and violence against women
• Italy ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1985
• the CEDAW Committee broadened the convention's scope through general recommendations
• Efforts to address gender-based violence have been strengthened following the introduction of the Optional Protocol in 2000
• Asylum law in Italy was mainly regulated by an administrative national procedure until the 2000s
• Directive 2004/83/EC and Directive 2005/85/EC were incorporated into Italian law between 2007-2008
• This changed the regulatory framework for asylum law
• The term 'asylum' itself was redefined as the status of refugees and holders of subsidiary protection were united under the common umbrella of 'international protection.'
• Three primary directives were then introduced and incorporated into Italian law

European Harmonization

• The main objective of these regulations was European harmonisation of treatment standards
• The law considers so-called "vulnerable" individuals, previously defined as "individuals with special needs"
• This category includes minors, disabled individuals, the elderly, pregnant women, single parents with dependent minor children, etc.
• Individuals who experienced torture, rape, or severe forms of violence can request international protection
• The gender dimension gained significant importance at the global level
• The 'Istanbul Convention' was signed in 2011. - The Parties are required to develop laws, policies, and support services aimed at ending violence
• Italy ratified the Convention in 2013

Addressing Human Trafficking

• Italy made significant efforts to combat human trafficking for sexual exploitation, particularly affecting women and girls from sub-Saharan Africa
• Efforts are directed towards understanding the legal rationale for granting refugee status to victims of trafficking
• The Italian Ministry of the Interior and UNHCR Italy's Guidelines for Territorial Commissions play crucial roles
• Women are granted asylum, with a subsidiary or complementary protection provided

Crucial Aspects of Italian Laws

• Another crucial aspect is the presence of a complementary form of protection known as 'humanitarian protection, later renamed 'special protection
• This form of protection constitutes a residual provision for individuals who do not qualify for refugee status but cannot be returned Over the years, several legislative changes have occurred regarding this form of protection
• From 1998-2018, protection was in force, providing a broad scope of protection for vulnerable individuals with "serious humanitarian reasons"
• In 2018, humanitarian protection was repealed
• A form of 'special protection' was introduced, aligning with the principle of non-refoulement
• Amendments were later introduced to the special protection permit, expanding its scope
• Further changes were implemented in 2023, limiting it again
• Legislature gives great attention and on specific humanitarian considerations

Legislative Aims

• Some policymakers aimed to restrict the scope of national protection
• Other policymakers needed to uphold subjective and specific humanitarian considerations within legal frameworks
• Women represent a group with distinct needs and vulnerabilities
• Women have increasingly received special attention

Italian Asylum Legislation

• Italian asylum legislation has made concerted efforts to address the gender dimension despite legislative restrictions in 2018 and 2023
• Italy demonstrated a commitment to addressing gender-specific concerns within the asylum process
• These conditions may have contributed to the increasing recognition rate of international and national protection over the years

Research Questions

• The study puts forth a set of research hypotheses:
  • Women are less represented among asylum-seeker applicants in Italy but have higher success rates compared to men.
  • Women are more likely to be more successful if less represented (minority status).
  • Women do not have an advantage in countries where women face higher discrimination.
  • Women are more advantaged despite recent restrictions in Italian Legislation

Data & Methods

• The data gap on asylum applications and decisions in Europe has been filled since 2008, allowing gendered analysis
• Eurostat data was used on first-instance decisions by age, sex, citizenship, and year
• Data helped recreate a database at the micro-level
• Frequency of decision, age class, gender, year, and citizenship indicates individuals sharing characteristics
• Weighted each combo for the number of occurrences by re-creating a database of first-instance decisions
• Dataset includes information on 719,090 decisions

Application Success

• Focus on application success rather than type of permit
• Consider decision a dependent variable with a binary outcome
• The applicants' characteristics, as provided by Eurostat, are:
  • Gender (male, female)
  • Age (0-13, 14-17, 18-34, 35-64, 65+)
  • Year of the application

Country of Origin Data

• We consider the percentage of decisions on women's applications at the country level by year
• To ensure comparability, retrieved each indicator from the site Our Word in Data
• Gender Inequality Index (GII):
  • The GII is an annual calculation by the UNDP
  • GII reflects reproductive health, empowerment, and labor market
  • GII varies between 0 and 1
• LGBT+ rights index:
  • The LGBT+ rights index is retrieved from the work of Velasco (2020).
  • The index assesses the extent to which lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgender and other non-traditional sexual and gender categories
  • The index combines 18 individual policies . Higher values indicate more rights, and negative values regressive policies
• Political regimes controls
  • The classification is criteria by Lührmann
  • electoral democracy index
    • Measures electoral aspects of democracy
    • Number of deaths in armed conflicts

Analytical Strategy

• For the hypotheses, we developed an analytic strategy including regression models by country to see association
• Step 1) - is being a woman associated with application success? As a second step, we run a full model accounting for the characteristics of the country of origin (level of gender - discrimination etc) As a third step, we will focus on the association between gender and the year of the decision
• Standard errors intragroup correlation; we will present in contrasts with odds ratios

Results

First showset regressions for countries (that meet specific thresholds) for the population For most countries, women are significantly most likely

• But for countries like Afghanistan, they would not favor the women To better do better, we aim to confirm, and control.
• Model 2, adds characteristics of the country and shows that odds show

Results for Models

• Model 2, shows that the odds for higher women are higher Therefor, the predicted probabilities is low With regards to (GII), we see high (lower) rates, (better gender - low discrimination) that's great Similar pattern in LGBT rates. The female advantage disappears.