PLMINDI exam: Indian schools of thought

• The text contains comprehensive exam notes for PLMINDI, covering various Indian schools of thought
• It includes exam instructions, a review of the main tenets of different schools, and practice questions

Exam Instructions

• To prepare for the exam, review the main concepts of Indian schools of thought
• Consider core teachings, their discussion, reflection, and application to daily life
• Practice answering questions defending answers with the school's tenets
• Answers should explain relevant concepts and their implications to the questions at hand
• Apply different Indian philosophical schools of thought to answer questions
• Answers may be similar, but contain important distinctions due to frameworks

Answering Questions

• Provide a definition of the question's concept
• Give a summary of the relevant school of thought's major tenets
• Redefine the concept within the chosen framework
• Summarize and restate the answer

Orthodox Schools (āstika)

• Orthodox schools strictly adhere to the Vedas
• Not all Hindus agree on the same philosophical tenets, despite their regard for the Vedas

Nyaya (Sage Gautama)

• Nyaya means "formal reasoning"
• It's used for reasoning in general and in legal reasoning in traditional Indian law courts
• It covers epistemology, theology, and metaphysics
• The Nyaya-Sutra recognizes four avenues of knowledge: perception, inference, analogy, and reliable testimony
• Nyaya is more about argumentation than logic

Vaisheshika (Ascetic, Kanada)

• Kanada means "atom-eater
• Kanada earned that name from his atomism or plant restricting diet
• The Vaisesika system focuses on metaphysical questions
• The Vedas are valid because they explain dharma

Four Kinds of Atoms

• Proposed by the Vaisesika System
• The system proposes that atoms come in four basic types: earth (pṛthivī), water (āp), fire (tejas), and air (vāyu)
• Space (ākāśa), time (kāla), and mind (manas) are considered non-atomic and indivisible.
• Atoms combine in dyads (dvyanuka) and larger aggregates to form perceptible objects.
• Atoms are eternal in their pure state but form temporary aggregates, explaining the transient nature of the world
• The movement and transformation of atoms are governed by adrsta (unseen forces), which include karma and divine will.
• Vaisesika distinguishes between material atoms and non-material categories like self (ātman), mind (manas), and qualities (gunas)
• Dharma (ethics or morality) can cause material prosperity, well-being, and moksa (liberation)
• Morality is a necessity for the purusharthas (dharma, karma, artha, moksa)

Pravrtti and Nivrtti

• Pravrtti is for those who work, play, and do everyday things
• Nivrtti is for those who step back from the world to think deeply
• Vaisesika helps with stepping back from the world
• It removes bad things like mistakes and confusion to understand the truth about life

Learning Vaisesika

• It makes a person wise
• See the world clearly (knowledge of truths)
• Avoid mistakes (removing ignorance)
• Appreciate things without getting too attached (knowing what really matters)
• Reach the highest goal—mokṣa (freedom or enlightenment)!

Sankhya (Kapila of Antiquity)

• Sankhya means enumeration and suggests a philosophical analysis method
• Kapila's views are in many smrti texts, stretching back to the end of the Vedic period
• Key concepts are in the Upanishads and classic Jain writings
• Sankhya does not explicitly align with the Vedas' authority

Sankhya Ontology (What Exists)

• The school believes in 2 ultimate realities: Prakrti and Purusa

Prakrti (Nature/Matter)

• The material aspect is everything we perceive, the unconscious, ever-changing material world
• Made up of the three qualities (gunas): sattva, rajas, tamas
• It is the source of all physical and mental experiences–including thoughts, emotions, and physical objects.
• Sattva (Light, Clarity, Harmony) – Associated with wisdom, balance, and purity such as intelligence, peace, and happiness
• Rajas (Activity, Passion, Energy) – Associated with movement, ambition, and desire, for example effort, struggle, and restlessness
• Tamas (Darkness, Inertia, Ignorance) - Associated with heaviness, laziness, and confusion

Purusa (Self/Consciousness)

• The pure awareness and observer that is totally separate from Prakrti
• It does not change, act, or create
• Every living being has a Purusa, but the Purusa is not the body, mind, or emotions—it is simply the one who watches all experiences

Sankhya Metaphysics (How Reality Works)

• The world evolves, leading to intellect (buddhi), ego (ahamkara), mind (manas), senses and physical elements
• Even though Prakrti and Purusa are separate, they connect due to ignorance (avidya)
• Prakrti performs actions, but Purusa mistakenly identifies with these actions
• When Purusa realizes it is a witness, liberation (mokṣa) happens and suffering ends
• Sankhya teaches everything comes from perceivable reality (Prakrti), while our true self (Purusa) is just watching

Goal of Sankhya

• Is self-realization
• Understanding that you are Purusa, not Prakrti
• When self-realization occurs: the illusion of being the doer disappears; one is no longer affected by pleasure and pain; there is complete freedom (moksa) from suffering

Yoga (Patanjali)

• Shares a lot with the Sankhya school of thought
• It's dualistic and doesn't explicitly derive its authority from the Vedas
• The key lies in the nature of agency, and its emphasis on practical paths to achieve liberation
• Liberation is facilitated by the ascendance of sattva, which permits enlightenment on the nature of the self

Astanga Yoga (Eight Limbs of Yoga)

• Yama – abstention from evil-doing, specifically abstaining from harming others (Ahiṃsā), telling falsehoods (asatya), acquisitiveness (asteya), greed/envy (aparigraha), and sexual restraint (brahmacarya)
• Niyama – various observances, the cultivation of purity (sauca), contentment (santos) and austerities (tapas)
• Asana – Posture
• Pranayama – Control of breath
• Pratyahara – Withdrawal of the mind from sensing objects
• Dharana – Concentration
• Dhyana – Meditation
• Samadhi – Absorption (in the self)
• Steadfast practice results in counteracting past karmas and culminates in dharmameghasamādhi (absorption in the cloud of virtue)
• Aspirants have their past sins washed away by dharma (virtue, or morality)
• This leads to kaivalya (aloness), the ultimate state of liberation for the yogi

Purva-Mimamsa (Jaimini)

• The Purvamimamsa school of Hindu philosophy gets its name from the portion of the vedas that is concerned with the earlier inquiry or the karma khanda.
• Focuses on dharma (“duty” or “ethics”)
• It emphasizes how we come to know it through the Vedas
• As a result, liberation or moksha is not elaborated
• Mimamsa states that its goal is to explain dharma as welfare.
• Vedas are self-validating, are the basis for other sacred texts like the smrti, and take priority over contradicting smrti texts
• Corrects when they speak about the things that we cannot perceive

Pūrvamīmāṃsā Believes

• The Vedas are eternal and unauthored
• They are infallible and beyond human criticism since they were not composed by humans or divine beings
• If the Vedas were created, they would lose their validity
• Argue that the Vedas are divine revelation

Vedanta (Badarayana)

• The Vedanta school concerns itself with the end (anta) of the Vedas
• It focuses on knowledge and moksha
• Vedanta is not a unified philosophy, but a broad tradition of different schools that interpret the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita
• The Upanisads explore philosophical themes such as:
• Brahman – the Ultimate Reality
• Atman – the Self
• Jiva – the individual soul
• Sub-traditions of Vedānta differ in understandings of key issues: the nature of Brahman (personal or impersonal), the relationship between Brahman and Ātman (identity or distinction), and devotion, knowledge, and liberation
• The major schools of Vedānta: include Advaita Vedanta (Sankara) - Non-Dualism, Visistadvaita Vedanta (Ramanuja) - Qualified Non-Dualism, Dvaita Vedanta (Madhva) - Dualism

Advaita Vedanta (Sankara) - Non-Dualism

• Brahman alone is real, and the world is an illusion.
• The Atman and Brahman are identical, and one-and-the-same
• Liberation comes from realizing this identity through knowledge (jnana yoga)
• The world appears real due to ignorance (avidya), but with true knowledge, one sees that only Brahman exists.

Visistadvaita Vedanta (Ramanuja) - Qualified Non-Dualism

Believes that:

• Brahman is personal
• Brahman includes all souls and the world, is both material and efficient cause of the universe
• Souls (jivas) and the world are real but are dependent on Brahman
• Liberation is achieved through devotion (bhakti yoga) and Vishnu/Narayana's grace
• Hence, the world and jivas are not illusions, but are eternally real as attributes of Brahman

Dvaita Vedanta (Madhva) - Dualism

• Brahman and individual souls are distinct
• Liberation comes through devotion to Vishnu
• Souls remain eternally distinct from Him.
• Reality is completely dualistic.
• Madhva rejects maya

Heterodox Schools

Schools include:

• Carvaka (Brihaspati)
• Jainism

Carvaka (Brihaspati)

• An ancient Indian school of materialism that outright rejects supernatural beliefs, divine entities, and concepts
• Reality is composed of the four material elements of earth, water, fire, and air
• Denies the existence of an eternal soul or an afterlife
• Asserts that perception (pratyaksa) is the only valid source of knowledge
• Rejects inference (anumāna) and scriptural
• Advocates hedonism
• Argues to eat, drink, and be merry since death ends all
• Critical of Vedic rituals
• Opposed asceticism
• Posited that any truth must be directly perceived, and that rejects validity in religious texts and spiritual claims
• Views pleasure as the highest goal of life
• Argued practices benefitted the priestly class
• Denied soul and powers
• Proper behavior was to benefit the majority
• Wrong actions harmed the majority

Vedic Period Characteristics

• Emergence of the Vedas, ancient texts considered the foundation of Hinduism
• These texts contained universal truths, transmitted orally by sages

Brahmanism Characteristics

• Emerged after the Vedic Period
• Emphasized a cosmic order maintained by Brahman, the ultimate reality
• The goal to unify the individual soul (Atman) with Brahman through Dharma and Karma
• Astika schools accepted the Vedas, while Nastika schools rejected them
• Charvaka was unique in its materialism, while Buddhism and Jainism retained spiritual aspects

Charvaka Legacy

• Naturalistic understanding of wellness
• Diseases regarded natural rather than divine punishment, and prosperity was no longer seen as a reward from a higher power
• Faced opposition from religious authorities
• Negatively texts from rival philosophical schools
• Represented a movement that challenged the norms and advocating for empiricism/sensory observation

Jainism

• Founded by Mahāvīra in the 6th century BCE
• Jainism centers around ethical discipline, asceticism, and non-violence (ahimsā)
• Believes that reality is multifaceted and promotes intellectual humility
• Elaborates on that with syādvāda, a doctrine that emphasizes the relativity of truth
• The universe is eternal
• Governed by the law of karma, which is seen as a physical substance
• Liberation (mokṣa) is achieved by purging all karmic matter through self-discipline/ethical living
• Jain ethics are encapsulated in the Five Great Vows
• Ahimsa – non-violence
• Satya – truthfulness
• Asteya – non-stealing
• Brahmacharya – celibacy
• Aparigraha – non-possession

Jainism Contribution

• Significantly in Indian philosophy, especially logic and debate
• Emphasis on non-violence influenced Mahatma Gandhi's nonviolent resistance (satyagraha)

Jainism Characteristics

• Symbol includes a Swastika (represents the cycle of rebirth)
• Jain = Spiritual victor
• Spiritual teachers, Tirthankaras liberate
• Samsara is the death/rebirth cycle
• Karma affects rebirths
• The Three Jewels consists of right faith, knowledge, and behavior
• Includes the Five Great Vows (Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Aparigraha)
• Monastic follows Mahavratas, while regular Jains follow Anuvrata ("Small Vows")
• Universe divided into heavenly realm, Earth, and hell
• Focuses on liberated souls who have achieved moksha
• The sects are Digambara (naked) and Svetambara (clothed monks)
• Resonates with non-violence and environmentalism in modern day

Buddhism

• Founded by Siddhārtha Gautama, it rejects both asceticism and materialism
• Core includes the Four Noble Truths
• Life is suffering (duḥkha)
• Suffering arises from craving (trsņā)
• Suffering can be ended
• The Eightfold Path of ethical living
• Emphasizes meditation, and wisdom for liberation (nirvāṇa)
• Defining feature is anātman (non-self), which refutes the Hindu belief in ātman
• Instead, it teaches that the "self" is merely an aggregation of five skandhas (mental/physical compounds) that are impermanent
• Key doctrine is pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), which explains that all phenomena arise/cease based on interdependent causes

Buddhism Schools

• Theravāda = Emphasizes monastic discipline/enlightenment, and remains dominant in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia
• Mahāyāna= Expands the ideal of enlightened beings beyond the solitary
• Vajrayāna = Incorporates esoteric rituals and meditation techniques
• Buddhist ethics align with the Middle Way
• Follow additional vows

Guides to Answering

• Start by identifying the concept
• Summarize the assigned school of thought
• Redefine the concept based on the assigned school of thought
• Provide an anecdote
• Relate to modern day reality
• Summarize and re-state the answer

Tips for Answering

• Nyaya uses perception, inference, analogy, and testimony
• Vaiseshika believes in dharma, atomism, and Pravrtti-Nivrtti
• Sankhya focuses on Prakrti-Purusha and Gunas for enlightenment
• Yoga - Uses Prakrti-Purusha, Eight Limbs to lead to enlightenment
• Purvamimamsa - adheres to Vedic traditions
• Vedanta - Believes in unity, oneness, and self-realization
• Charvaka focuses on materialism and feeling good, body is the only reality
• Jainism focuses on morality
• Buddhism focuses on the Middle Path, dukkha, desire/cure/path and love

Study Questions

• What is fear? How do we cure fear?
• What is courage? How do we live a courageous life?
• What is compassion? How does it relate to justice?
• What is wisdom? How do we acquire it?
• What is the self? How does one know one's self?
• What is meditation? What is its role in life?
• What is the body? How should we relate to it?
• What is joy? How is it experienced in aloneness?
• What is peace? How is it experienced amidst chaos?
• What is sorrow? How can one be free of it?
• What is death? How should we relate to it?
• What is life? How do we live it authentically?
• Who is the other? How should we relate to him/her/them?
• What is authenticity? How does it relate to happiness or sorrow?
• What is an authentic relationship? How does it pair with freedom?
• What is strength? How does it relate to weakness?
• What is weakness? How does it relate to strength?
• What is beauty? What are the manifestations of beauty?
• What is discipline? What does it mean to be self-disciplined?
• What is power? How does it manifest in daily life?