Plato: Political Philosophy

Plato (428-348 BC)

• Plato believed that philosophy encompasses everything, and originates from his work
• Karl Popper stated that one can either be Platonic or anti-Platonic
• Whitehead considered the European philosophical tradition to be a series of footnotes to Plato
• Barker identified justice as both a human virtue and a social bond
• Berki said Plato may not be everyone’s saint, but undoubtedly, everyone’s teacher
• Popper said modern communist totalitarianism has Platonic communist roots
• Sabine defined justice as a bond holding society together

Introduction

• Plato is knows as the father of political philosophy
• Plato was the first to explore the ideal state, good political life, the idea behind the state, the role of political class, and ethics

Historical Background

• After Athens lost to Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, Plato sought to understand their defeat
• Plato wanted to create an Ideal State because he viewed the tyrannical rule in Athens as corrupt, and believed a Philosopher King was the only solution

Prominent Work

• Apology: Imaginative and satirical version of Socrates' defence trial
• Crito: Question and extent of Political obligation and disobedience
• Enthypro: Service to divine holiness
• Phaedo: Rational case for Immorality of soul
• Charmides: "Know thyself”- self-control as key
• Meno: Ideas of teaching virtue
• Gorgias: Need to adhere to Conscience
• Republic: Describes justice, metaphysics, philosophy and politics. Includes theories of justice, education, and communism
• Participants in the Republic dialogue: Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Adeimantus, Glaucon, and Socrates
• Statesman(Politicus): Superiority of rule of law.
• Laws: It is Plato's longest dialogue that supports a mixed constitution

Sources of Influence

• Parmenides influenced Plato's theory of Ideas and Forms with the idea of being. Idea is the only permanent thing in this world of change
• Heraclitus's notion of flux, or continuous change, influenced Plato's perception of ordinary objects in the material world
• Pythagoras' geometry and transmigration of the soul inspired Plato’s theories of Forms and the Soul
• Socrates' dialectical method, theory of knowledge, the idea that virtue is knowledge, and his theory of reality helped formulate theories on Justice and his hate for democracy

Plato's Methodology

• Employed dialectics: rational dialogues and discussions
• Used deductive reasoning: moving from general principles to specific instances
• Plato was an idealist, believes in grand ideas, normativism, wholism
• Radical: Plato supported wholesale engineering
• Utopian: Plato idealized the notion of a perfect but unattainable society and state

Theory of Soul

• Featured prominently in "The Republic" and "Phaedo", is crucial for his views on ethics, metaphysics, and reality
• The soul has three components: reason (logos), spirit (thumos), and desire (epithumia) each influences human behavior and character
• Virtue dominance defines each man's soul
• Dominance determines class divisions: ruling, auxiliary, and producing. Each class was made of a different metal referred to as the Myth of Metals
• Theory of Recollection: Souls recall previously learned knowledge of Forms, in the realm of Forms
• Education is not acquiring new knowledge, but recalling what the soul has forgotten

Theory of Ideas

• 'Reality is the shadow of Ideas'
• Plato's Idea Theory is based on Socrates's Theory of Knowledge
• To create an ideal state, one needs the idea of the ideal state

Theory of Justice

• Discovering the principles of justice is the central problem
• Justice is the ultimate purpose of the state
• Plato explains Justice in terms of different classes fulfilling their duties in the state
• Plato used dialectics, engaging characters in dialogue to understand Justice
• Essential components are functional specialization, non-interference, and following the norm of 'one-virtue -one class- one duty'
• Functional Specialization means proper stationing and non-interference

Theory of Education

• Rousseau called "The Republic" the finest education treaties ever written
• Plato merged the education systems Athens and Sparta by combining good features
• Plato emphasized the development of mental, physical, and spiritual components and the theoretical and practical education
• Plato suggests state-controlled education for both men and women
• Plato linked education to justice. To find the spiritual qualities, Plato devised a system of education that filters
• Pre-primary Education (0-6 years) includes Gymnastics for physical and music for mental development and moral stories for character building
• Secondary Education (6-18 Years) covers Mathematics, Geometry, History, Geography, Physical Military education etc
• Filtration at age 18 determines who enter the producer class
• Higher Education (18-20 years) increases the level of subjects and filter for the soldier class
• Higher Learning (20-50 years) splits between theoretical knowledge- (20-35 years) and hands on training/experience (35-50 years), making a person eligible to become philosopher king

Theory of Communism

• Plato introduced communism to address corruption
• Communism of property and wives is connected to Plato's theory of justice
• Marx' conception less broad than Plato's
• Plato's communism is only for guardian class (rulers and soldiers) whereas Marx's communism is for all
• Plato does not propose communism for the producer class
• The ruling/guardian class is deprived of owning property under Plato's Communism of Property
• Communism of family: for Plato, family is more evil than property, communism includes marriage and wives
• The state controls marriage with ablest Athenian men and women (eugenic purposes)
• Children are taken into the state's custody to tackle nepotism and ensure equal treatment

Theory of Philosopher King

• Knowledge is mightier than law
• The Philosopher King symbolizes knowledge and sacrifice as a proven leader, and thus the Philosopher King will have absolute powers
• The Philosopher King can make decisions without law or public opinion, but must maintain the constitution of The Republic
• Plato's Philosopher King concept is a conclusion of Plato's concept of Justice
• Democratic systems are not favored
• Plato's aim was an Athens free of evil and corruption with philosophers as rulers
• The Philosopher King, a Man of Reason, requires: 50 years of education, no property, no family, and Law pride in the book Laws

Types of Government

• Plato categories Fives types of government in the order of best to worst: Aristocracy, Timocracy, Oligarchy, Democracy, and Tyranny

Plato's Quotes

• “Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge."
• “Ideas are the source of all things”
• “Ignorance, the root and steam of all evil”.
• “No law or ordinance is mightier than understanding.”
• “Those states are best governed where the ruler is least interested to govern”
• “It is foolish to limit an expert practitioner of medicine with the book of medicine".

Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.)

• Aristotle was an ancient Greek Philosopher who is regarded as the father of Political Science
• Aristotle is considered the greatest of Plato and well as the greatest critic of Plato
• Aristotle gives importance to the world of matter like Plato, and absolute wisdom like practical wisdom
• Aristotle was the first to introduce knowledge classification

Aristotle and his times

• Aristotle was greatly influenced by his father Nichomachus, who was a court physician to the King of Macedon (Alexander's grandfather)
• At the age of 30 He went to Athens to study philosophy under the guidance of Plato
• Similar to Plato, Aristotle kept the men of the ruling classes in his association
• His scientific family background, Plato's influence over twenty years, careful observation of political events, study of constitutions, and Lyceum lectures all influenced Aristotle's ideas

Plato's Influence

• Aristotle is indebted to Plato in many ways, described as the greatest of all the Platonists
• Man is by nature social, must live an associated life, society is an integral part of man's life
• Plato thought that Democracy is not an ideal form of government
• State exists for moral perfection of individuals, no contradiction between individual and State

Differences Between Philosophies of Plato and Aristotle

• Plato: Utopian/Idealist, Radicalism, Extremist, Deductive Approach: General to Particular
• Aristotle: Practical and Pragmatic, Conservativism, Golden Mean, Inductive Approach: Particular to General

Aristotle's Work

• Aristotle's political theory is found mainly in Politics with references in Nichomachean Ethics. His Constitution analysis of government based of 158 studied constitutions
• Nichomachean Ethics, written in 350 BC, Aristotle states Humans can be happy by fulfilling their basic function. He examines virtues for living well in a polis
• Metaphysics, written in 350 BC, Aristotle rejects Plato's theory of forms of being for general study
• Politics written in 350 BC, Aristotle explores ideal state and forms of government, calls polis a political association
• Aristotle addressed Physics, Rhetorics and Eudemian ethics
• Aristotle's highlights social nature of humans, vital for community and political life. The phrase is zoon politikon

Political Ideas of Aristotle Theory of State

• "Man is by nature, a political animal"
• "State comes into existence for sake of life and continues for sake for good life"
• "State is highest of all associations”
• "One who can live without state is either a beast or God, he cannot be a man.”
• “State is a union of family and religious.”
• Aristotle belongs to the Socratic tradition and establishes the importance of state
• Aristotle challenges the state as mere convention, emphasizing its inherent aspect of human nature
• Nature has not designed humans for self-sufficiency to fulfill the requirements on their own
• Humans form the societal association through family, then villages, and finally the state as the most comprehensive association and the highest form of association

Theory of Citizenship

• All residents of a state are not citizens
• Citizens are native-born adult Greek males of the propertied class, unlike slaves, children, women, old people and foreigners
• Women are occupied with domestic affairs, old people have physical fragility, children lack maturity, slaves lack civic duty
• Citizenship requires a duty towards state and active engagement in governance

Theory of Slavery

• Some should rule and others should be ruled
• Slavery is natural and prevalent in ancient Greece, where "natural slaves" and “slaves by law”
• Nature inherently designed masters and slaves, with mental and physical attributes

Theory of Property

• Aristotle analyzed property systems for keen insights related to property, society, and individual well-being
• Property comes from virtues and is functional
• Abolishing private property unsupportable, while being aware of its negative aspects
• Common ownership/use is not conducive for management of property or well-being of society
• It diminishes motivation and productivity, as common ownership is no one responsibility

Theory of Constitution

• "Good ruler ought to be worldly-wise rather than wise in the world of ideas"
• Aristotle's theory of constitution is the most important reason to give Aristotle the Father of political science
• His book Politics delves into core issues such as state, constitution, government, justice, and revolution making it the first textbook in its discipline
• He proposes that the best constitution is a monarchy led by a Philosopher King, after studying 158 constitutions by using empirical methodology
• He is known for constitutionalism advocating against deviation between government
• There are three major components to the constitutional rule: Rule in the public interest, Government cannot act in violation of the constitution, Rule by consent rather than force
• Aristotle studied 158 constitutions and determined six basic forms
• "Polity" represents a balanced rule of a moderate group of middle-class citizens for more stable and just governance

Types of Government

• He suggests Polity is the ‘Best Practicable' and golden form of government. Since they are balanced they are not easily arrogant

Theory of Revolution

• As perAristotle's views, a revolution is political change with any size
• Aristotle is a conservative against any change and prefer stability
• Revolution causes passion and insolence, increases parts of the state, and causes rivalries and corruption
• Revolution caused by unprincipled leaders, or power politics and dissensions
• Revolution can be curbed by ensuring that people do not get the feeling of injustice, while keeping corruption in check, and by ensuring social balance

Concept of Justice & Equality

• 'The goodness in the sphere of politics is justice, and justice contains what tends to promote the common interest”
• “It is unjust to treat equals, unequally and it is equally unjust to treat unequals, equally."
• Most common cause is feeling of inequality in tyranny or aristocracy. The idea of equality is linked to the idea of justice.
• Aristotle believed that justice is the very essence of the state and that no polity can endure for a long time unless it is founded on a right scheme of justice.
• Aristotle's theory of justice is known as proportionate justice and involves regulation of the regulation of human relations. The two dimensions are:
• Rectificatory Justice: Grievance redressal that administered by courts to principle proportion, means penalty to harm.
• Distributive Justice: Principles with proportionate justice, like resources, honors, and awards. State rewards in proportion to societal contributions
• Those who are unjust will treat equals unequally and treat unequals equally
• According to Aristotle masters and slaves by nature. If they are treated equally, that is injustice

Rule of Law

• "Law is a reason without Passion"
• Aristotle advocates for the rule of law for consistency and fairness
• He's considered as the father of constitutionalism
• A teleological view on law toward the common good or well-being
• The rule of law beats of the Philosopher King based Aristotle's comparison
• Rulers must be the servants of the laws because “law is order, and good law is good order.”
• Collective wisdom is preferable to one person
• Focus on the best practicable and not best ideal because best is unachievable

Aristotle's Quotes

• It is unjust to treat equals unequally; It is equally unjust to treat unequal equally”. “Man is by nature a political animal”
• “Authority of statesman is different from the authority of master.”
• “State comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life."
• “State is the highest of all associations.”
• “One who can live without state is either a beast or god but he can't be a man.”
• “Polity is the best practicable form of government.”
• “Law is a reason without passion.”

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527)

• Niccolo Machiavelli is hailed as the first modern political thinker
• Machiavelli established the independence of political science as an independent or autonomous discipline
• He is praised for separating Politics from Ethics
• Machiavelli was considered the father of political realism with the primacy to the real world of politics
• He attained one of the higher posts in the government of Florence where he had many diplomatic missions
• Machiavelli released from prison and retired from political life and induced his literary works out of which the "Prince" and the "Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius" stand from most prominence

Works of Machiavelli

• Art of War (1521) on theory of war and military explains relation between war and politics in Machiavelli's political thought.
• History of Florence (1525) on City of Florence explained those forces that shaped its history
• Discourses (1531) with Republicanism about to preserve republics
• Prince (1532) provided advice to the Prince

Methodology of Machiavelli

• He used on empirical methods that relied on the study of political behavior
• Machiavelli known as the Father of Political Realism
• He is a materialist
• Rather than Philosophy, better guides toward politics is Psychology and History
• While in Prince emphasized security and unity of state. In Discourses the important is Liberty and Republicanism

Human Nature

• "Man is selfish, ungrateful, fickle-minded, coward, and greedy.”
• "Man can forget the loss of his father but will not forget the loss of property."
• Prince has to deal with people and must have their correct information
• People are selfish that will only that their own self-interest is greater
• Universal Egoism exists because all men are wicked and essentially selfish, being the prime force in conduct

Politics and Ethics

• “In Politics, Ends justify Means”
• Politics is a virtue to the very foundation of politics
• Religion and Politics and Ethics and Politics separation
• Political actions must be judged by the political rather than religious standards
• Morality as religiously wrong may be politically correct
• ‘Dual Morality’ as the Prince different as the common man
• Prince should protect nation state over the Prince
• Prince should ensure security between nation and people

Religion

• Not against religion except for Church
• For separation from Unification of Italy against guiding of state
• Religion used through Utilitarian
• Being religious for Prince is critical

Statecraft

• "Government consists in nothing else but so controlling subjects that they will not be able to nor have the cause to do you harm."
• Machiavelli considered state as the highest association where subjects surrender
• Government is judged by their prosperity that has Monarch power

Prince Philosophy

• "It is better for the Prince to be feared than loved."
• Being knowledgable of hard and soft power but perferring the prior
• Love is selfish and therefore policy is insufficient
• Prince uses weaknesses of human nature
• If necessary, use force
• Prince has to recognize traps like a fox and wolves like a lion

Machiavelli Quotes

• "The lion cannot protect himself from traps, and the fox cannot defend himself from wolves. One must therefore be a fox to recognize traps, and a lion to frighten wolves."
• “Never attempt to win by force what can be won by deception.”
• “Men are driven by two principal impulses, either by love or by fear.”
• “Since love and fear can hardly exist together, if we must choose between them, it is far safer to be feared than loved”
• “He who wishes to be obeyed must know how to command"
• “Therefore, it is necessary to be a fox to discover the snares and a lion to terrify the wolves” “There is no avoiding war, it can only be postponed to the advantage of your enemy."
• “Men sooner forget the death of their father than the loss of their patrimony”

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• An important figure in western political thought
• His status as a great philosopher and political thinker was not fully recognised until the 19th Century.
• The greatest English political thinker whose major emphases were on peace, order, security, commodious life and all-powerful Sovereign
• One of the chief exponents Social Contract theory
• Karl Marx acknowledged him as father of all of us
• In 1618, he was recruited as a tutor to William Lord Cavendish in an aristocratic family
• Witnessed politics and constitutional turmoil caused by the English Civil War and supporting royalists, creation of his understanding of a pessimistic view of Human Nature

Prominent Work

• De Cive (On the Citizen) 1642 anticipation of theme of Leviathan
• Leviathan or the Matter, 1651 with 4 parts containing Law of Nature, Social Contract Theory & Absolute Sovereign
• De Corpore (On the body) 1655 “Elements of law, natural and politic".
• De Homine 1658
• Behemoth: the history of causes of civil wars of England 1681 also known as The Long Parliament

Method

• Turned to method of natural science where he was inspired by Galileo
• Relied on mechanical materialism for analysing human behavior

Human Nature

• Appetite is the driving force behind men's struggle for power
• Hobbes' view: man is neither social or political
• Human beings are “matter in motion” that is called felicity
• States motions are voluntary vs vital with Reason vs no justice
• He emphasized the need of an Arbitrator or Judge
• Self-preservation was all for Humans with power pursuit

State of Nature

• Before commonwealth called the Leviathan 1651
• Before state and had the interaction between beings but no law
• Actions were dictated by individual to grab within reach self concerns vs others needs
• Struggle, warfare, and total insecurity due to robbery

Natural Laws

• Hobbes says there is no morality
• Therefore there are just rights to oppress
• According to Law of Nature it can prompt them better fulfill exits
• Lists 19 natural laws of importance That accomplishes a covenant between all men
• Sovereign holds legal authority

Sovereignty

• Hobbes held Sovereignty divided, permanent by creation of people's will
• Contract based between them
• This lead to perpetual and mutual construction but did not allow for religious and divine
• Sovereign has limited rights and therefore they are subject
• Individuals surrendered their full natural rights to State of Nature back
• Cannot revolt without punishment

Liberty

• Thomas Hobbes had modern liberation from motion
• Free expression not for liberty or forbidden laws

Hobbes Quotes

• ‘Fear and I were born twins together'
• 'Curiosity is the lust of mind'
• ‘It is not wisdom but Authority that makes a law'
• 'Force and Fraud are in War the two cardinal virtues'
• ‘In the State of Nature, Profit is the measure of right'
• ‘No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent deaths: and the life of man, Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short ‘

John Locke (1632– 1704)

• Famous philosopher and regarded by 'Father of Liberalism' during the 17th century
• Coincided with the most significant epoch British history from absolute monarchy into parliamentary democracy
• With his analysis Human made his understanding acquiring knowledge
• An argument with obligations with limited power for their citizens
• Glorious Revolution of 1688 for being bloodless

Prominent Work

• Essays on the Law of Nature 1676
• A Letter Concerning Toleration 1689
• Two Treatises of Civil Government (1689) justifying the revolution by describing with refutation of Filmer's theory by saying Divine is equal
• An Essay Concerning Human Knowledge (1689)
• Thoughts on Education 1693
• The reasonableness of Christianity 1695
• Of the Conduct of the Understanding 1706

Nature

• Locke reforms social contract to reform Hobbes
• That becomes liberation from absolutism (goodwill)
• Defined liberty with no limitation but if permited according to Law of Nature

Social Justice Contrat

• Together through dissolvement with creation to restore disorder
• All governance is fiduciary for all
• Constitutional create partial or constitutional control
• People with reasoning must consent with eachother

Lockes Philosophy

• That person who signed will never be liberated or stay from the course
• The social contract is a government protects rights, people learn experiences, people trust and make good decisions, keep law and order
• Property should equal be from labout

Quotes From Locke

• ‘I have always thought the actions of men the best interpreters of their thoughts'
• 'What worries you, masters you'.
• ‘Government has no other end, but the presentation of property'.
• ‘All mankind.... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.'
• ‘All wealth is product of Labour'
• ‘Everyman has a property in his own person- This nobody has right to, but himself

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778)

• A mid 18th Century figure who influenced the ideas and events
• Regarded as the Intellectual Revolution
• One of the strongest thinkers of modern social
• Emphasized the human belief towards state of nature was corruption

Works

• In terms of arts, there isn't good towards science because it does ruin mankind
• Distinction of qualities with rise in civilization
• Economy represents general will
• Emilenew education
• Social with the general
• Common autography self reflection

Nature State

• Present in Discourse 1883 and the Social Contract1762
• State of Nature was bliss
• Savages can live consume and are free/ status with emergence

Private Ownership

• Metal discovery led to power
• Society and property of self interest
• Government was equal with everyone.

Liberation through Social Construct

• Contract with the Human which was to transform their power
• Enhance humans to by being under power
• Society has been upholded by reason

General Concepts

• All laws to the society in order
• Individuals that is the correct
• Reason for real reasons to be valid

Liberal Representation

• Had an idea only to have illusion not in truth if lost freedom
• Made up for the act
• Quality is a right
• Like Aristole to find women was found and had to help them

Comparison

• All the writers Hobbes England, Lockes England, and Rosseau France

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)

• 19th Century German Philosopher who studied Communism
• Author of Das Kapital whom together formed Marxism

Philosophy

• Revolutionary and radical towards labor
• Vision with many gaps
• Hegel had a legacy of economical dynamics
• Has philosophy issues

Work

• The Question about the society's power in 1843 and later
• Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts in1844
• Theses of Feuerbach and german Ideology
• In 1845 and 1846
• Manifesto for the party for being communist
• French struggle had class

Theorists

• Material is to change the idea
• What happens for material life
• This is to get rig of the society
• Dialect is the foundation of science
• Each class in a name of the individual
• Only that of where society
• Force of the state matters
• Can become freedom but is slaved to labour

Quotes

• The Struggle
• Their History
• Can't Exist
• To be good and reasonable
• And to be right
• They exist And must be everything