Plant Physiology: Starch and Metabolic Products
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Questions and Answers

What characterizes the schizogenous method of formation?

  • Expansion of a cavity through chemical processes
  • Enclosing a cavity by splitting cells (correct)
  • Direct growth from a single cell
  • Formation through cell breakdown
  • Which type of structure is characterized by the breaking down of cells to form a cavity?

  • Anastomosing
  • Schizogenous
  • Lysigenous (correct)
  • Schizolysigenous
  • What are the primary components of latex found in laticiferous structures?

  • Proteins and carbohydrates
  • Resins and tannins in an aqueous solution (correct)
  • Simple sugars and amino acids
  • Inorganic minerals and salts
  • Which of the following is an example of a secondary metabolic product?

    <p>Volatile oils (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which polysaccharide is formed through the photosynthesis process?

    <p>Starch (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining feature of latex vessels?

    <p>They can have anastomosing connections (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carbohydrates are composed mainly of which elements?

    <p>Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of metabolic products are represented by alkaloids and glycosides?

    <p>Secondary metabolic products (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which starch has a distinct shape that is described as polyhedral with sharp angles?

    <p>Rice starch (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main chemical test used to identify starch?

    <p>Iodine Test (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which starch is noted for having a large size in its characteristics?

    <p>Potato starch (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of striation, which starch exhibits an absent feature?

    <p>Rice starch (A), Maize starch (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which starch is described as having mostly simple and few compound aggregates?

    <p>Wheat starch (B), Maize starch (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does starch play in pharmaceutical applications?

    <p>Tablet disintegrant (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which starch has an eccentric pointed hilum?

    <p>Potato starch (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the internal uses of starch?

    <p>As an antidote for iodine poisoning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What color do hydrolysable tannins produce when tested with ferric chloride?

    <p>Blue (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are phlobaphenes resulting from?

    <p>Treatment of condensed tannins with acids or enzymes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tannins do not contain a sugar moiety?

    <p>Condensed tannins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main use of calcium oxalate crystals in plants?

    <p>Microscopical examination and detection of adulteration (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates the presence of tannins in the gold beater's skin test?

    <p>A brown or black color on the skin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is produced as a result of the photosynthesis process in plants?

    <p>Glucose and oxygen (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of amylose in starch granules?

    <p>To form the inner layers of the granule (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about starch is true?

    <p>Starch is colored deep blue in the presence of iodine. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to starch granules when heated with water?

    <p>They swell and undergo gelatinization. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hilum in starch granules?

    <p>It is the starting point of granule formation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the macroscopic character of starch?

    <p>It occurs as a white powder or irregular masses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the microscopical identification of starch?

    <p>Shape and striation of granules. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to starch when treated with concentrated solutions of calcium or zinc chlorides?

    <p>It undergoes gelatinization. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are aleurone grains primarily composed of?

    <p>Ground substance, crystalloid, and globoid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the crystalloid in aleurone grains?

    <p>It is formed of albumins and is hardly soluble in water. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What color do aleurone grains stain when treated with Millons reagent?

    <p>Red (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic reaction of most alkaloids when treated with Mayers reagent?

    <p>Formation of a yellowish precipitate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes fixed oils?

    <p>They are hydrolyzed to produce soap and glycerol. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glycosides are classified according to which of the following?

    <p>Their sugar moiety and the linkage between glycone and aglycone (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are alkaloids typically found in plants?

    <p>Either as free bases or as salts of acids (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about volatile oils is true?

    <p>They are mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does osmic acid play in identifying oils microscopically?

    <p>It stains oil globules black. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common use of tannins in medicinal applications?

    <p>As an astringent in the gastrointestinal tract (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of fatty acids do fats typically consist of?

    <p>Saturated, higher molecular weight (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tannins may be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes?

    <p>Hydrolysable tannins (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which solvent type do free bases of alkaloids typically dissolve in?

    <p>Organic solvents only (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main therapeutic action of volatile oils?

    <p>Antiseptic and carminative (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of glycosides?

    <p>Sugar part (glycone) and non-sugar part (aglycone) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is observed when tannins react with proteins of animal hides?

    <p>They create a protective coat for regeneration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    What are secretory ducts?

    Secretory ducts are tube-like structures that transport substances throughout a plant. They can be found in various parts, like leaves or even the entire plant.

    How do schizogenous ducts form?

    Schizogenous ducts form when cells divide and create a space that eventually becomes a duct lined by epithelial cells.

    How do lysigenous ducts form?

    Lysigenous ducts develop when cells break down to create a cavity, which then becomes a duct.

    What is schizolysigenous duct formation?

    Schizolysigenous ducts combine aspects of both schizogenous and lysigenous formation. They start by splitting cells but then enlarge via cell breakdown.

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    What are laticiferous structures?

    Latex, a viscous fluid, is produced and transported through tube-like cells or vessels called laticiferous structures.

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    What are latex cells?

    Latex cells are unbranched tube-like structures. They don't connect with each other.

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    What are latex vessels?

    Latex vessels are tube-like structures formed by the fusion of cells. They connect and form a network.

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    What are primary metabolites?

    Primary metabolites are essential for plant growth and survival, serving as food storage products. They include carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

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    Photosynthesis

    The process of plants converting carbon dioxide and water into glucose using sunlight energy. It happens within chloroplasts in the presence of sunlight energy.

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    Starch

    A complex carbohydrate formed by plants during photosynthesis. It serves as a primary energy storage molecule.

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    Amylose

    A type of starch molecule that is soluble in water and forms the inner layers of starch granules.

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    Amylopectin

    A type of starch molecule that is insoluble in water and forms the outer layers of starch granules.

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    Gelatinization

    The process of starch granules swelling and becoming translucent when heated in water.

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    Hilum

    The point on a starch granule where it began to form inside a leucoplast. It can appear as a simple point, curved, or have multiple clefts.

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    Striations

    Alternate layers around the hilum of a starch granule, forming concentric rings or transverse layers.

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    Aggregation

    The arrangement of starch granules, which can be simple or compound.

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    Potato Starch Granules

    Potato starch granules are large, oval, rounded, lenticular, and pyramidal in shape. They exhibit a distinct, concentric striation pattern.

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    Wheat Starch Granules

    Wheat starch granules are medium-sized, oval, rounded, and polyhedral with rounded angles. They lack striations.

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    Maize Starch Granules

    Maize starch granules are medium-sized, polyhedral, with sharp angles. They have a central hilum and show simple aggregation with few compounds.

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    Rice Starch Granules

    Rice starch granules are small, polyhedral with sharp angles. They are absent of striations and have a central hilum. Their aggregation is mostly simple, with a few compounds.

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    Hilum in Starch Granules

    The hilum is a small, central point or depression in a starch granule where it was attached to the plant cell.

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    Striations in Starch Granules

    Striations are concentric lines or markings on the surface of a starch granule.

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    Aggregation of Starch Granules

    Aggregation refers to the way starch granules clump together. Simple aggregation means they are mostly individually scattered, while compound aggregation means they are tightly clustered.

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    Structure of Starch Granules

    Starch granules are composed of long chains of glucose molecules. These chains are arranged in a helical structure that forms a distinct shape for each type of starch.

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    Proteins

    Nitrogen-containing organic molecules built from chains of amino acids.

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    Aleurone Grains

    Stored protein in plants, often found in seeds.

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    Ground Substance

    A component of aleurone grains, it's an amorphous protein that is soluble in water.

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    Crystalloid

    Another part of aleurone grains; a protein often difficult to dissolve in water.

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    Globoid

    The third component of aleurone grains; a globulin protein bound with calcium and magnesium salts.

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    Alkaloids

    A diverse group of organic molecules containing nitrogen in a ring structure.

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    Free Bases

    Alkaloids in their natural form, typically less soluble in water.

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    Alkaloidal Salts

    Alkaloids combined with acids, more soluble in water.

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    Hydrolysable tannins

    Tannins that can be broken down into simpler molecules, including a sugar moiety, by hydrolysis.

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    Condensed tannins

    Tannins that don't break down into simpler units and lack a sugar component.

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    Hydrolysis of tannins

    The process of breaking down tannins into simpler compounds using water.

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    Goldbeater's skin test

    A test that uses goldbeater's skin (thin membrane) to detect the presence of tannins.

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    Calcium oxalate crystals

    A common plant cell content, usually found in a crystalline form, used in microscopy for drug identification and adulteration detection. Insoluble in water.

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    How do alkaloids react with precipitation reagents?

    Alkaloids are organic plant compounds that can be precipitated from solution using reagents like Mayer's, Wagner's, and Dragendorff's. However, caffeine and other purine bases don't form these precipitates.

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    What are glycosides?

    Glycosides are compounds naturally found in plants, consisting of a sugar part (glycone) and a non-sugar part (aglycone).

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    How are glycosides classified based on the linkage?

    Glycosides can be classified based on the linkage between the glycone and aglycone (e.g., O-glycosides, S-glycosides, C-glycosides).

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    Are glycosides polar or non-polar compounds?

    Glycosides are polar compounds, meaning they dissolve in polar solvents like water.

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    How can glycosides be broken down?

    Glycosides can be broken down into their components (glycone and aglycone) by acids or enzymes.

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    What are volatile oils?

    Volatile oils are aromatic substances extracted from plants, typically mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds. They are used in perfumes, spices, and for therapeutic effects.

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    What are tannins?

    Tannins are water-soluble polyphenols found in plants, known for their ability to bind with proteins and create leather from animal hides. They are used for their astringent properties.

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    What are hydrolysable tannins?

    Hydrolysable tannins are a type of tannin that can be broken down by acids or enzymes like tannase.

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    Study Notes

    The Cell and Cell Differentiation

    • A cell is the fundamental unit of living organisms (plants and animals).
    • Cells consist of a cell wall, nucleus, cytoplasm, and vacuoles.
    • Cytoplasm contains various organelles like crystals, aleurone grains, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, and plastids.
    • A tissue is a group of cells with similar form and function.

    The Cell Wall

    • Mature cell walls consist of:
      • Middle lamella: An amorphous, colloidal layer composed of pectic substances, acting as an intercellular substance.
      • Primary wall (original cambial wall): Composed of cellulose and pectic substances.
      • Secondary wall: Formed after cell enlargement, primarily composed of cellulose and polysaccharides. (undergoes modifications with lignin, suberin and cutin deposition)
      • Tertiary wall: The innermost layer, typically thin, highly refractive, and composed of cellulose.

    Properties of Different Cell Walls

    • Cellulosic Walls: Primarily composed of cellulose, often accompanied by hemicellulose and pectin.

      • Chemical Properties:
        • Turn blue with iodine and sulfuric acid.
        • Turn blue with chloro-zinc-iodine.
        • No color with aniline or phloroglucin and HCl.
        • Dissolve in ammoniacal copper oxide (Cuoxam) and precipitate with dilute sulfuric acid.
    • Mucilaginous Walls: Certain cellulosic walls can be converted to gums and mucilages (polysaccharides consisting of sugar and uronic acid combined with metals).

      • Chemical Properties:
        • Variably stained with ruthenium red, iodine-sulfuric acid, or corallin soda.
    • Lignified Walls: Lignin (complex phenylpropanoid polymer) strengthens cell walls.

      • Chemical Properties:
        • Stain magenta red with phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid.
    • Suberized and Cutinized Walls: Suberin and cutin are mixtures of polymerized fatty acids and suberic acid.

      • Chemical Properties:
        • Stain red with alkanna tincture and Sudan III.
    • Chitinous Walls: Chitin (polysaccharide derivative containing acetyl and amino groups) forms the skeletal substance of insects and fungi.

      • Chemical Properties:
        • Turns deep violet with iodine solution followed by dilute sulfuric acid when heated with 50% potash at 160-170°C.

    Cell Differentiation

    • Parenchymatous Tissues: Fundamental/ground tissues, isodiametric or slightly elongated cells with intercellular spaces. They contain various contents (starch, calcium oxalate crystals). They form major parts of the pith and cortex.
    • Collenchymatous Tissues: Living mechanical tissue with unevenly thickened, nonlignified cell walls. Common in angles or tangential walls (angular or lamellar collenchyma) of herbaceous stems, petioles, and midribs of leaves.
    • Sclerenchymatous Tissues: Thick-walled, dead, and lignified cells primarily for mechanical support.
      • Sclereids: Small, thick-walled cells, isodiametric or slightly elongated.
      • Fibres: Elongated, thick-walled, and lignified cells with tapering ends.

    Secretory Tissues

    • External and Internal: Examples include glandular hairs, secretory cells, cavities, ducts, and laticiferous tissues.
      • Secretory Cells: Isolated or in rows, their walls may be suberized. Secrete volatile oils, resin, gum resins, mucilage, enzymes, or tannins.
      • Secretory Cavities (Glands): Embedded tissue cavities secreting volatile oils or oleoresin (e.g., savin, clove, buchu, or dictamnus) via Schizogenous, schizolysigenous, or lysigenous.
      • Secretory Ducts: Tube-like structures, may extend throughout the organ (e.g., leaf in Pinus) or whole plant, formed schizogenously, lysigenously, or schizolysigenously (e.g., in Capaifera).
    • Laticiferous Structures: Tube-like cells or vessels with latex (colorless, milky white, yellow, or reddish viscous emulsion). Latex may contain resin, gums, gum-resins, fats, waxes, proteins, alkaloids, tannins, minerals, sugars, and enzymes.

    Primary and Secondary Metabolites

    • Primary Metabolites: Organic compounds directly involved in plant growth and development, such as carbohydrates (starch, sugars), proteins, and lipids.
    • Secondary Metabolites: Compounds not essential for growth but often provide protection or attractants, including alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins (e.g. flavonoids in flowers), or resins.

    Starch

    • Starch is a carbohydrate polymer formed during photosynthesis via condensation of glucose molecules.
    • Starch granules consist of amylose (interior, soluble in water) and amylopectin (exterior, insoluble in water).
    • Starch's presence can be confirmed visually with iodine (blue-black color).

    Proteins

    • Proteins are polymers of amino acids, crucial for plant structure and function. Aleurone grains are a common protein storage form in seed tissues.

    Lipids

    • Lipids (fats, oils, waxes) are important for plant structure and energy storage. Fixed oils and fats can be converted to soaps and glycerols by alkalis.

    Glycosides

    • Glycosides are plant compounds composed of a sugar (glycone) moiety and a non-sugar moiety (aglycone), with diverse biological activities.

    Volatile Oils

    • Volatile oils are secreted in oil cells, canals, or glands. Made up of hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds, characterized by aroma and used in flavoring, perfumery, and as antiseptics.

    Tannins

    • Tannins are water-soluble compounds found in plant extracts. Combine with proteins to prevent putrefaction (e.g. tanning of leather), and have astringent, hemostatic properties, and use as antidotes for poisoning.

    Calcium Oxalate

    • Calcium oxalate is an end product of plant metabolism. Often found in crystalline forms, useful for microscopic identification of plants and detection of adulteration.

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    Description

    This quiz explores key concepts in plant physiology, focusing on the characteristics of starch, latex structures, and metabolic products. Test your knowledge on the various types of starch, their properties, and their roles in plants and pharmaceuticals.

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