Phytochemistry PPC303: Carbohydrates Overview

Phytochemistry, PPC303

• Carbohydrates are produced by plants during photosynthesis
• Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the same proportion as water
• Carbohydrates formula is Cx(H₂O)y
• Structurally, carbohydrates can be polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones
• Examples of monosaccharides include D-glucose and D-fructose
• After absorption, metabolism of monosaccharides depends on body requirements, resulting in energy production, storage as glycogen or triglycerides, or conversion to keto acids, amino acids, or proteins
• Carbohydrates are classified by the number of monosaccharide units, including monosaccharides (e.g., pentose, hexoses), disaccharides (reducing, non-reducing), trisaccharides, and polysaccharides (homo-, hetero-)
• Mucopolysaccharides are of animal origin (e.g., chitin, hyaluronic acid, heparin)
• Carbohydrates are found in many pharmaceutical products as therapeutic agents or due to their pharmaceutical importance
• Mutarotation is the interconversion between α and β forms of sugar in solution via an open chain
• Dextrose, glucopyranose, and Grape sugar are examples of aldohexoses
• Carbohydrates are used as a ready source of energy during starvation
• Fructose, also known as levulose, fructofuranose, or fructopyranose is found naturally in fruits and honey
• Fructose is used as a food for diabetics due to its low glycemic index and inclusion in infant formulas
• Glucosamine is naturally present in shellfish, animal bones, and bone marrow, and some fungi (e.g., Aspergillus niger)
• Oral glucosamine is used in the treatment of osteoarthritis
• Aurothioglucose is a semi-synthetic glucose derivative used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
• Auranofin is a synthetic glucose derivative used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis
• Sugar alcohols are obtained as reduction products of corresponding sugars. Xylitol, D-mannitol, and Glucitol are examples
• Mannitol is naturally obtained from manna, and also through the catalytic hydrogenation of mannose
• Mannitol is used as an osmotic diuretic and diagnostic agent in kidney function tests
• Mannitol is also used as an excipient in chewable tablets
• Mannitol hexanitrate is used as a coronary vasodilator
• Mannitol-nitrogen mustard is an antineoplastic agent
• Xylitol is found in fibers of many fruits and vegetables (e.g., berries, corn, mushrooms) and is produced via hydrogenation of xylose
• Xylitol is used as a sweetener in chewing gums and pastilles, and also in oral hygiene products
• Xylitol is considered a "tooth-friendly" sugar alcohol due to its ability to bind calcium and remineralize enamel
• Calcium gluconate is the calcium salt of gluconic acid
• Calcium gluconate is prepared via electrolytic oxidation of glucose or bacterial fermentation
• Calcium gluconate is used as a source of soluble, non-toxic, well-tolerated calcium
• Calcium gluconate therapy is indicated for conditions with calcium deficiency (e.g., parathyroid deficiency, tetany, general calcium deficiency)
• Ferrous gluconate is classified as an hematinic and used orally or by injection in iron deficiency anemia
• Glucuronic acid is a naturally occurring component of gums, mucillages, and hemicelluloses
• Glucuronic acid is prepared through enzymatic oxidation of glucose
• Glucuronic acid is used in the relief of certain arthritic conditions
• Lactose is a by-product from whey, the portion of milk left after fat and casein have been removed, and crystallizes out following whey evaporation
• Lactose is used as a diluent in tablets and powders and a nutrient in infant formulas
• Lactulose is a semisynthetic sugar prepared by alkaline rearrangement of lactose
• Lactulose is a treatment for chronic constipation (laxative)
• Lactulose is used to decrease blood ammonia concentration in portal-systemic encephalopathy
• Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide found in sugar cane and sugar beet
• Sucrose is used to prepare syrups and as a sweetening agent in pharmaceutical products, and as bacteriostatic and preservative in aqueous solution
• Sucralfate is a basic aluminum salt, used in the treatment of peptic and duodenal ulcers