Physiology Quiz: Heart Valves and Capillary Function
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Physiology Quiz: Heart Valves and Capillary Function

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Questions and Answers

The primary function of the four valves of the heart is to:

  • maintain blood pressure
  • generate rhythmic contractions
  • ensure one-way blood flow (correct)
  • control the rate of blood flow

    • Body cells surrounding capillaries typically have a:

  • high nutrient concentration
  • high oxygen concentration
  • low oxygen concentration (correct)
  • low carbon dioxide concentration

    • What is the primary mechanism by which water is forced through capillary walls?

  • diffusion
  • osmosis
  • active transport
  • filtration (correct)

    • In the clinical setting, what does blood pressure typically refer to?

    <p>arterial pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of the cardiac cycle is blood pressure greatest in the arteries?

    <p>when the ventricles contract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The epicardium lies beneath which layer of the pericardium?

    <p>parietal pericardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main cause of a myocardial infarction?

    <p>Obstruction of blood flow to the heart muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is the outermost layer of the heart wall contains fat that helps cushion the heart?

    <p>Epicardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the thickest layer of the heart, which is made up of muscle?

    <p>Myocardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the heart is the innermost layer, which is thin and smooth?

    <p>Endocardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the heart wall contains Purkinje fibers?

    <p>Endocardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following membranes covers the heart?

    <p>Pericardium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which valve is between the left atrium and left ventricle?

    <p>Bicuspid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the valve that is also known as the mitral valve?

    <p>Bicuspid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.

    <p>pulmonary semilunar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ valve prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.

    <p>bicuspid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following valves prevents blood from flowing back into the right ventricle?

    <p>Tricuspid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the cardiac conduction system is located between the ventricles and splits into left and right branches?

    <p>Bundle of His</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the cardiac conduction system is located in the wall of the right atrium?

    <p>AV node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the cardiac conduction system is known as the pacemaker of the heart?

    <p>SA node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the cardiac conduction system is located in the walls of the ventricles and causes the ventricles to contract?

    <p>Purkinje fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the cardiac conduction system receives the impulse from the SA node?

    <p>AV node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bundle of His splits into left and right bundle branches that carry an electrical impulse to the ____.A) SA node B) AV node C) AV bundle D) Purkinje fibers E) mitral valve

    <p>AV bundle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following causes dysrhythmia when elevated?

    <p>Potassium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause longer-than-normal heart contractions?

    <p>High concentration of calcium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does not cause an increase in the heart rate?

    <p>Low concentration of potassium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following decreases the heart rate?

    <p>Parasympathetic nerve stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cardiac control center responds to ____.A) changes in blood pressure B) increase in potassium ion concentration C) strenuous exercise D) increase in calcium ion concentration E) Increase in body temperature

    <p>changes in blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ have walls that are one cell thick. A) arterioles B) arteries C) veins D) venules E) capillaries

    <p>capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Venules and arterioles are connected by ____. A) arterioles B) arteries C) veins D) venules E) capillaries

    <p>capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are the strongest blood vessels that function to carry blood away from the heart? A) Arterioles B) Arteries C) Veins D) Venules E) Capillaries

    <p>Arteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ are small vessels that carry oxygenated blood. A) arterioles B) arteries C) veins D) venules E) capillaries

    <p>arteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ are small vessels that carry deoxygenated blood. A) arterioles B) arteries C) veins D) venules E) capillaries

    <p>veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following results in an increased blood pressure? A) Increased cardiac output B) Loss of blood C) Vasodilation D) Dehydration E) Shock

    <p>Increased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does not decrease the blood pressure?

    <p>Vasodilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following veins drains the intestines?

    <p>Mesenteric</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which artery supplies blood to the thigh?

    <p>Femoral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which arteries supply blood to the rib area?

    <p>Intercostals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ arteries supply blood to the forearm and hand.

    <p>Ulnar and radial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ vein is the major vein in the legs.

    <p>Saphenous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gluteal areas are served by the ____ veins.

    <p>D) iliac</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ vein takes blood to the liver from the intestines.

    <p>C) mesenteric</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood leaves the armpits through the ____ veins.

    <p>D) axillary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ____ vein removes blood from the thorax and abdomen.

    <p>A) azygos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following causes of chest pain is heart-related?

    <p>C) Angina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following causes chest pain only when someone pushes on the chest?

    <p>B) Costochondritis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mr. Jackson is being seen because of severe chest pain. He says the pain is sharp and severe and gets worse when he coughs or breathes in. Based on these symptoms, you might suspect that he has

    <p>C) a pulmonary embolism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The blood supply for the teeth comes from which artery?

    <p>Maxillary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chest pain caused by ____ generally occurs only during body movements.

    <p>costochondritis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If chest pain follows a meal and increases when the patient bends over, it is generally due to ____.

    <p>heartburn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Karyn has been having episodes of tachycardia (rapid heartbeat) associated with her congestive heart failure. Karyn does not want to add 'yet another' medication to those she is already taking. Which of the following options might help Karyn control her rapid heartbeat without medication?

    <p>Vagal maneuvers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mr. Johnson is an overweight patient with a history of myocardial infarction four years ago. He is in the office today complaining that he just doesn't feel well. He is experiencing nausea, shortness of breath, and a little dizziness. His feet and ankles seem swollen and his neck veins are prominent. For which of the following conditions might the practitioner test given the patient's symptoms?

    <p>Congestive heart failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mrs. Landon has been diagnosed with coronary artery disease. Her cholesterol level is high, and the physician advised her to get more exercise and follow a low-fat diet. At her follow-up appointment, however, the physician tests her cholesterol level and it is still unacceptably high. Which of the following medications might you expect the physician to prescribe to help lower her cholesterol?

    <p>Lipitor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a bulge or weak area in the wall of the aorta?

    <p>Aneurysm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the hardening of fatty plaque deposits within the arteries?

    <p>Atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which blood pressure is regulated?

    <p>Baroreceptors in the aorta and carotid arteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the inflammation of the inner lining of the heart?

    <p>Endocarditis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If an embolus blocks a cerebral artery, what may be the result?

    <p>Stroke</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What anchors the cusps of the AV valve to cardiac muscle?

    <p>Chordae tendineae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the lowest blood pressure in arteries when the ventricles relax?

    <p>Diastolic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for swelling in the legs or feet due to fluid retention?

    <p>Edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a consistent resting blood pressure measured at 140/90 mm Hg or higher?

    <p>Hypertension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure that separates the atria from each other?

    <p>Septum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the circuit that blood takes from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again?

    <p>Pulmonary circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    After the impulse flows through which part of the cardiac conduction system, the ventricles contract and the SA node starts the flow of a new impulse?

    <p>AV node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the wall that separates the ventricles?

    <p>Interventricular septum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the route that blood takes from the heart through the body and back to the heart?

    <p>Systemic circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pressure in the arteries caused by ventricular contraction called?

    <p>Systolic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are twisted, dilated veins that are usually seen in the legs called?

    <p>Varicose veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the tightening or constriction of the muscular wall of an artery that increases blood pressure called?

    <p>Vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the widening of the wall of an artery that decreases blood pressure called?

    <p>Vasodilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The percentage of red blood cells found in a sample of blood is called the ____.

    <p>hematocrit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Plasma makes up what percentage of the blood?

    <p>55%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The production of RBCs in the blood is controlled by which hormone?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Red blood cells live for approximately ____.

    <p>four months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacteria and viruses are destroyed by white blood cells called ____.

    <p>neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Parasitic infections can be controlled by which of these WBCs?

    <p>Eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these WBCs release histamine and heparin and promote inflammation?

    <p>Basophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A bacterial infection has been present in a patient for about 2 weeks if the WBC differential shows ________.

    <p>decreased neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following would the medical provider expect a patient with AIDS to have?

    <p>Decreased lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Some WBCs leave the blood vessels by a mechanism called ____.

    <p>diapedesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood platelets are essential for ____.

    <p>clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When blood coagulates on a vessel wall in the absence of a known injury, it is correctly referred to as ____.

    <p>a thrombus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When a part of a thrombus breaks off, it is referred to as ____.

    <p>An embolus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An embolus is dangerous because it can eventually become lodged in a small artery in the ____.

    <p>Lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following occurs when mismatched blood is given to a patient?

    <p>The blood will fail to circulate properly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with which blood type are universal donors?

    <p>O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with which blood type can receive only one type of blood?

    <p>O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A woman of childbearing age should know her Rh type because if she is Rh-negative and conceives a child that is Rh-positive, ____.

    <p>Her first infant will have erythroblastosis fetalis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Globulins are plasma proteins that ____.

    <p>Transport lipids and some vitamins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fibrinogen is a plasma protein that ____.

    <p>Aids in blood clotting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When a blood vessel is broken, what is the body's first response?

    <p>Platelet plug formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be the physician's best response to Jose's mother regarding his 'rare' blood type AB?

    <p>'Most people with type AB blood can receive blood from any blood type.'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment course would you expect the physician to pursue with Tina due to her polycythemia vera diagnosis?

    <p>Therapeutic phlebotomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beth is a 16-year-old patient whose mother has brought her to the office because Beth is always complaining of being tired. Beth tells you that she has frequent headaches, and her feet are always cold. Her blood pressure is 100/64, and her heart rate is 84. When you ask if her menstrual periods are normal, she says she bleeds heavily for 7 or 8 days each month. Which of the following conditions might you suspect?

    <p>Iron-deficient anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood clots are formed from ____, which sticks to the damaged area of the blood vessel, creating a mesh that entraps blood cells and platelets.

    <p>fibrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If an embolus lodges in a coronary artery, it may cause ____.

    <p>myocardial infarction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood clots are formed from ____, which sticks to the damaged area of the blood vessel, creating a mesh that entraps blood cells and platelets.

    <p>fibrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If an embolus lodges in a coronary artery, it may cause ____.

    <p>myocardial infarction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The most likely result of agglutination following a blood transfusion is ____.

    <p>severe anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If necessary, which other blood type can Harold receive if the local blood bank is low on type A blood?

    <p>O-positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following individuals is most at risk for erythroblastosis fetalis?

    <p>The first Rh-negative fetus born to an Rh-positive mother</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a fetus develops erythroblastosis fetalis, what medical intervention is often required at birth?

    <p>Multiple blood transfusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The most common cause of anemia is ____.

    <p>Iron deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following populations is most affected by sickle cell anemia?

    <p>African Americans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a sign or symptom of sickle cell anemia?

    <p>Enlarged spleen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    About how much blood does the average adult body contain?

    <p>4 to 6 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a normal WBC count?

    <p>6,700 cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following patients is most likely to have thalassemia?

    <p>A patient of Mediterranean descent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The clumping of red blood cells following a blood transfusion is ________.

    <p>agglutination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Monocytes and lymphocytes do not have granules in their cytoplasm and are two types of ________.

    <p>agranulocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When there are not enough red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood to carry an adequate amount of oxygen to the body's cells, the person has the condition called ________.

    <p>anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The white blood cells called ________ release substances such as histamine, which promotes inflammation, and heparin, which is an anticoagulant.

    <p>basophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The liver uses an orange pigment called _______ to make bile needed for the digestion of fats.

    <p>bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pigment released from a red blood cell when it is destroyed?

    <p>Bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for hemoglobin that is not carrying oxygen and may carry carbon dioxide?

    <p>Deoxyhemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called when a blood clot replaces the platelet plug at the site of a blood vessel injury?

    <p>Blood hemostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Blood plasma proteins called what are used to transport lipids and some fat-soluble vitamins?

    <p>lipoproteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    White blood cells (WBCs), which are also called leukocytes, are divided into two categories:

    <p>granulocytes and agranulocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most blood cells are produced in red bone marrow by cells called:

    <p>hemocytoblasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what anemia, red blood cells are destroyed faster than they can be made?

    <p>Hemolytic anemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A condition in which the bone marrow produces a large number of abnormal white blood cells is:

    <p>Leukemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are white blood cells also called?

    <p>Leukocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a patient has a white blood cell count above 10,000 cells per cubic millimeter of blood, the patient has what?

    <p>Leukocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A white blood cell count that is below normal is called what?

    <p>Leukopenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lipids must combine with molecules called what to be transported in the blood?

    <p>Lipoproteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of white blood cells provide immunity for the body?

    <p>Lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which abbreviation is used for the term hemoglobin?

    <p>Hgb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is the smallest of the plasma proteins that pull water into the bloodstream to help maintain blood pressure?

    <p>Albumins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formation of a blood clot is called ____.

    <p>Coagulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    There are different types of lipoproteins found in blood. They include very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and ____________.

    <p>chylomicrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The granules in the cytoplasm of granulocytes include neutrophils, ________, and basophils

    <p>Eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Heart Function and Blood Flow

    • The purpose of the four valves of the heart is to ensure one-way blood flow.
    • Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries when the ventricles contract.

    Blood Pressure and Circulation

    • Blood pressure refers to arterial pressure in the clinical setting.
    • Water is forced through capillary walls by filtration.
    • The rate of blood flow is not controlled by the heart valves.

    Heart Structure and Function

    • The myocardium is the actual heart muscle.
    • The epicardium lies on top of the visceral pericardium.
    • The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart.

    Blood Cells and Oxygen

    • Body cells surrounding capillaries usually have a low oxygen concentration.
    • The concentration of oxygen and nutrients in the blood is important for cellular function.

    Heart Problems and Diseases

    • A myocardial infarction is caused by obstruction of blood flow to the heart muscle.
    • Damaged heart valves, weakened heart muscle, and defective SA nodes can also cause heart problems.

    Heart Valves

    • The purpose of the four valves of the heart is to ensure one-way blood flow.

    Blood Flow and Concentration

    • Body cells surrounding capillaries usually have a low oxygen concentration.
    • Water is forced through capillary walls by filtration.

    Blood Pressure

    • In the clinical setting, blood pressure refers to arterial pressure.
    • Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries when the ventricles contract.

    Heart Conditions

    • A myocardial infarction is caused by obstruction of blood flow to the heart muscle.

    Pericardium

    • The fibrous pericardium lies on top of the visceral pericardium.

    Heart Layers

    • Pericardium is the membrane that covers the heart.
    • Epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart wall, containing fat that helps cushion the heart.
    • Myocardium is the thickest layer of the heart, made up of muscle.
    • Endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart, thin and smooth.

    Heart Layers and Their Characteristics

    • Epicardium: outermost layer, contains fat, cushions the heart
    • Myocardium: thickest layer, made up of muscle
    • Endocardium: innermost layer, thin and smooth

    Heart Valves

    • The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle is the bicuspid (mitral) valve.

    Heart Conduction System

    • Purkinje fibers are found in the myocardium.

    Heart Valves

    • The bicuspid valve is also known as the mitral valve.
    • The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and ventricle.
    • The pulmonary semilunar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
    • The aortic semilunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta.
    • The left atrioventricular valve is also known as the mitral valve.
    • The tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back into the right atrium.
    • The mitral valve prevents blood from flowing back into the left atrium.

    Cardiac Conduction System

    • The bundle of His is located between the ventricles and splits into left and right branches.
    • The SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium and is known as the pacemaker of the heart.
    • The AV node is located between the atria and ventricles.
    • The Purkinje fibers are located in the ventricular walls and help to regulate the heartbeat.
    • The bundle branches are extensions of the bundle of His that carry the electrical signal to the ventricles.

    Heart Valves

    • The bicuspid valve is also known as the mitral valve.
    • The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and ventricle.
    • The pulmonary semilunar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
    • The aortic semilunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta.
    • The left atrioventricular valve is also known as the mitral valve.
    • The tricuspid valve prevents blood from flowing back into the right atrium.
    • The mitral valve prevents blood from flowing back into the left atrium.

    Cardiac Conduction System

    • The bundle of His is located between the ventricles and splits into left and right branches.
    • The SA node is located in the wall of the right atrium and is known as the pacemaker of the heart.
    • The AV node is located between the atria and ventricles.
    • The Purkinje fibers are located in the ventricular walls and help to regulate the heartbeat.
    • The bundle branches are extensions of the bundle of His that carry the electrical signal to the ventricles.

    Cardiac Conduction System

    • The Purkinje fibers are located in the walls of the ventricles and cause the ventricles to contract.
    • The AV node receives the impulse from the SA node.

    Bundle of His

    • The bundle of His splits into left and right bundle branches that carry an electrical impulse to the Purkinje fibers.

    Dysrhythmia

    • Elevated potassium ions can cause dysrhythmia.

    Heart Contractions

    • High concentration of calcium ions can cause longer-than-normal heart contractions.

    Heart Rate Regulation

    • Strenuous exercise, elevated body temperature, and sympathetic nerve stimulation can increase the heart rate.
    • Parasympathetic nerve stimulation can decrease the heart rate.
    • Low concentration of potassium ions does not increase the heart rate.

    Cardiac Control Center

    • Responds to changes in blood pressure

    Blood Vessel Characteristics

    • Capillaries have walls that are one cell thick
    • Venules and arterioles are connected by capillaries

    Blood Vessel Functions

    • Arteries are the strongest blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
    • Arterioles and capillaries are small vessels
    • Capillaries carry oxygenated blood
    • Venules and capillaries carry deoxygenated blood

    Blood Pressure Regulation

    • Increased cardiac output results in an increased blood pressure
    • Vasodilation, loss of blood, dehydration, and shock do not directly result in increased blood pressure

    Blood Pressure Regulation

    • Loss of blood, dehydration, and decreased cardiac output decrease blood pressure
    • Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure, whereas vasodilation decreases blood pressure

    Anatomy of Veins and Arteries

    • The mesenteric vein drains the intestines
    • The femoral artery supplies blood to the thigh
    • The maxillary artery supplies blood to the teeth
    • The intercostal arteries supply blood to the rib area
    • The ulnar and radial arteries supply blood to the forearm and hand
    • The saphenous vein is the major vein in the legs

    Veins

    • Gluteal areas are served by the iliac veins.
    • The mesenteric vein takes blood to the liver from the intestines.
    • Blood leaves the armpits through the axillary veins.
    • The azygos vein removes blood from the thorax and abdomen.

    Chest Pain

    • Angina is a heart-related cause of chest pain.
    • Costochondritis causes chest pain only when someone pushes on the chest.
    • Pleurisy causes chest pain that worsens when coughing or breathing in.
    • Heartburn is not a heart-related cause of chest pain.
    • Pulmonary embolism and myocardial infarction are potential causes of severe chest pain.

    Heart Structure and Function

    • The outermost layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, which contains fat that helps cushion the heart.
    • The pericardium is a membrane that covers the heart, and it has two layers: the outer fibrous pericardium and the inner serous pericardium, which is further divided into the parietal pericardium and the visceral pericardium (also known as the epicardium).
    • The myocardium is the thickest layer of the heart, made up of muscle, and it is responsible for contractions.
    • The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart, and it is a thin layer of smooth tissue.

    Heart Valves

    • The bicuspid valve, also known as the mitral valve, is between the left atrium and left ventricle.
    • The tricuspid valve is between the right atrium and right ventricle.
    • The pulmonary semilunar valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.
    • The aortic semilunar valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta.

    Cardiac Conduction System

    • The sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the wall of the right atrium, is the pacemaker of the heart.
    • The atrioventricular (AV) node receives the impulse from the SA node.
    • The bundle of His is located between the ventricles and splits into left and right bundle branches.
    • The Purkinje fibers are located in the walls of the ventricles and cause the ventricles to contract.

    Blood Vessels

    • Arteries are strong blood vessels that function to carry blood away from the heart.
    • Venules are small vessels that carry deoxygenated blood.
    • Capillaries are small vessels that allow for the exchange of oxygen and nutrients with waste products.
    • Veins are blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart.

    Blood Pressure and Flow

    • Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries when the ventricles contract.
    • Cardiac output, vasodilation, and dehydration can affect blood pressure.
    • Blood flows from arteries to arterioles to capillaries to venules to veins.

    Clinical Applications

    • Chest pain can be caused by heart-related issues (angina) or non-heart-related issues (costochondritis, pleurisy).
    • A myocardial infarction (heart attack) occurs when there is an obstruction of blood flow to the heart muscle.

    Chest Pain Causes

    • Chest pain caused by costochondritis generally occurs only during body movements.
    • Chest pain that follows a meal and increases when the patient bends over is generally due to heartburn.

    Tachycardia Management

    • Vagal maneuvers might help control rapid heartbeat without medication in patients with congestive heart failure.

    Congestive Heart Failure Symptoms

    • Symptoms of congestive heart failure may include nausea, shortness of breath, and dizziness.
    • Physical signs of congestive heart failure may include swelling of feet and ankles, and prominent neck veins.

    Coronary Artery Disease Management

    • A low-fat diet and regular exercise may be recommended to patients with coronary artery disease to lower cholesterol levels.
    • If cholesterol levels remain unacceptably high, medication such as Lipitor may be prescribed to help lower cholesterol.

    Cardiovascular System

    • An aortic aneurysm is a bulge or weak area in the wall of the aorta.
    • Atherosclerosis is a hardening of the fatty plaque deposits within the arteries.
    • Baroreceptors, located in the aorta and carotid arteries, measure blood pressure and help regulate it.

    Cardiovascular System

    • Inflammation of the inner lining of the heart is called endocarditis.
    • An embolus blocking a cerebral artery can cause a stroke or cerebrovascular accident.
    • The cusps of the AV valve are anchored to cardiac muscle by cord-like structures called chordae tendineae.
    • During ventricular relaxation, blood pressure in arteries reaches its lowest point, known as diastolic pressure.
    • Fluid retention can lead to edema, a condition characterized by swelling in the legs or feet.

    Blood Pressure and Heart Structure

    • A consistent resting blood pressure of 140/90 mm Hg or higher is diagnosed as hypertension.
    • The atria are separated from each other by a walled membrane known as the septum.
    • The ventricles of the heart are separated by the interventricular septum.

    Blood Circulation

    • The pulmonary circuit is the route that blood takes from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart again.

    Heart Function

    • After the impulse flows through the atrioventricular (AV) node, the ventricles contract and the sinoatrial (SA) node starts the flow of a new impulse.

    Blood Circulation Pathway

    • The blood takes a circular route from the heart through the body and back to the heart, known as the circulatory circuit.

    Blood Pressure Regulation

    • The pressure in the arteries caused by ventricular contraction is referred to as systolic pressure.
    • Constriction of the muscular wall of an artery, which increases blood pressure, is called vasoconstriction.
    • Dilation of the wall of an artery, which decreases blood pressure, is called vasodilation.

    Vein Abnormalities

    • Twisted, dilated veins, typically seen in the legs, are known as varicose veins.

    Blood Composition

    • The percentage of red blood cells found in a sample of blood is called the hematocrit.
    • Plasma makes up approximately 55% of the blood.

    Red Blood Cell Production

    • The production of RBCs in the blood is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin.
    • Red blood cells live for approximately 4 months.

    White Blood Cells

    • Bacteria and viruses are destroyed by white blood cells called neutrophils.
    • Parasitic infections can be controlled by eosinophils.

    White Blood Cells (WBCs)

    • Basophils release histamine and heparin, promoting inflammation.

    Infection and WBC Differential

    • A bacterial infection present for about 2 weeks would show elevated monocytes in the WBC differential.

    AIDS and WBCs

    • Patients with AIDS would have decreased lymphocytes.

    WBC Movement

    • Diapedesis is the mechanism by which WBCs leave blood vessels.

    Blood Platelets

    • Blood platelets are essential for clotting.

    Blood Coagulation

    • Blood coagulation on a vessel wall in the absence of a known injury is correctly referred to as a thrombus.

    Blood and Transfusions

    • A broken part of a thrombus is referred to as an embolus.
    • An embolus is dangerous because it can become lodged in a small artery in the lungs.

    Blood Mismatch

    • When mismatched blood is given to a patient, the blood received will be destroyed.
    • No other major problems will result from receiving mismatched blood.

    Blood Types

    • People with O blood type are universal donors.
    • People with AB blood type can receive only one type of blood.

    Rh Type and Pregnancy

    • A woman's Rh type is important to know because if she is Rh-negative and conceives a child that is Rh-positive, her second baby will have erythroblastosis fetalis.

    Plasma Proteins

    • Globulins are plasma proteins that transport lipids and some vitamins, aid in blood clotting, and help control bleeding
    • Fibrinogen is a plasma protein that aids in blood clotting

    Blood Clotting

    • When a blood vessel is broken, the body's first response is platelet plug formation
    • Blood coagulation follows platelet plug formation
    • Blood clot formation is the final response to a broken blood vessel

    Blood Types

    • AB is a rare blood type
    • People with type AB blood can receive blood from people with type AB blood only
    • Type AB blood is not the most common type of blood
    • People with type AB blood are not universal donors

    Polycythemia Vera

    • Polycythemia vera is a condition characterized by frequent headaches, dizziness, and shortness of breath
    • Treatment for polycythemia vera typically involves therapeutic phlebotomy

    Patient Symptoms and Possible Conditions

    • Beth, a 16-year-old patient, complains of fatigue, frequent headaches, and cold feet.
    • She has heavy menstrual bleeding for 7-8 days each month.
    • Possible conditions: Iron-deficient anemia (B) due to heavy menstrual bleeding.

    Blood Clot Formation

    • The formation of a blood clot is called coagulation (C).
    • Coagulation involves the formation of a mesh that entraps blood cells and platelets.
    • Fibrin (A) sticks to the damaged area of the blood vessel, creating this mesh.

    Complications of Blood Clots

    • If an embolus lodges in a coronary artery, it may cause myocardial infarction (E), a heart attack.
    • An embolus in a blood vessel can also cause pulmonary embolism (B), a blockage in the lungs.

    Agglutination and Blood Transfusions

    • Agglutination is the clumping of blood cells, which can occur following a blood transfusion.
    • The most likely result of agglutination following a blood transfusion is a severe reaction, potentially leading to a cerebrovascular accident (A) or other complications.

    Blood Transfusions and Blood Types

    • Harold, with A-positive blood, can receive A-negative blood if necessary.
    • Type A blood is compatible with A-positive and A-negative blood.

    Erythroblastosis Fetalis

    • An Rh-negative mother is most at risk for erythroblastosis fetalis.
    • The condition occurs when an Rh-negative mother is pregnant with an Rh-positive fetus.
    • Medical intervention often required at birth is exchange transfusions (not an option in the provided answers).

    Anemia

    • The most common cause of anemia is iron deficiency.
    • Anemia can be caused by AIDS, as in Harold's case.

    Sickle Cell Anemia

    • The population most affected by sickle cell anemia is African Americans.
    • Signs or symptoms of sickle cell anemia include enlarged spleen and delayed growth.

    Blood Volume

    • The average adult body contains between 4 to 6 liters of blood.

    White Blood Cell Count

    • A normal WBC count is approximately 3,800 cells.

    Thalassemia

    • Patients of Mediterranean descent are most likely to have thalassemia.

    Blood Transfusion and Cellular Components

    • Clumping of red blood cells following a blood transfusion is a notable phenomenon.

    White Blood Cell Characteristics

    • Monocytes and lymphocytes are two types of white blood cells that lack granules in their cytoplasm.

    Anemia and Oxygen Transportation

    • When there are insufficient red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood, the body's cells receive inadequate oxygen, leading to a condition called anemia.

    White Blood Cell Functions

    • Basophils, a type of white blood cell, release substances like histamine, which promotes inflammation, and heparin, an anticoagulant.

    Liver Function and Bile Production

    • The liver utilizes an orange pigment called bilirubin to produce bile necessary for fat digestion.

    Blood Cells and Components

    • When a red blood cell is destroyed, a pigment called bilirubin is released.
    • Deoxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin that is not carrying oxygen and may carry carbon dioxide, also known as reduced hemoglobin.
    • There are several types of lipoproteins in blood, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and chylomicrons.
    • Blood coagulation is the process where a blood clot replaces the platelet plug at the site of a blood vessel injury.
    • Granulocytes are a type of white blood cell that contain granules in their cytoplasm, including neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

    Blood Proteins and Cells

    • Lipoproteins, a type of blood plasma protein, are responsible for transporting lipids and certain fat-soluble vitamins.

    Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

    • Leukocytes are categorized into two main groups: granulocytes and agranulocytes.

    Blood Cell Production

    • Red bone marrow produces most blood cells, with the process facilitated by stem cells.

    Anemia

    • Hemolytic anemia is a condition where red blood cells are destroyed at a faster rate than they can be produced.

    Abnormal White Blood Cells

    • Leukemia is a condition characterized by the bone marrow producing an abnormal large number of white blood cells.

    White Blood Cells (WBCs)

    • WBCs are also referred to as leukocytes.
    • A WBC count above 10,000 cells per cubic millimeter of blood indicates leukocytosis, likely indicating a bacterial infection.
    • A below-normal WBC count is known as leukopenia.

    Lipid Transport

    • Lipids are not water-soluble and require combination with molecules called lipoproteins for transport in plasma, which is mostly water.
    • Lipoproteins enable lipid transport in the bloodstream.

    Immunity

    • White blood cells responsible for providing immunity to the body are the lymphocytes.

    Hemoglobin and Blood Components

    • Hgb is the abbreviation for hemoglobin.
    • Hemoglobin is a critical component of red blood cells (RBCs) that carries oxygen throughout the body.

    Plasma Proteins and Blood Pressure

    • Albumins are the smallest of the plasma proteins that help maintain blood pressure by pulling water into the bloodstream.
    • Other types of plasma proteins include fibrinogen and globulins.

    Heart and Blood Vessels

    • The pericardium is a membrane that covers the heart, with three layers: epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium.
    • The epicardium is the outermost layer, containing fat that cushions the heart.
    • The myocardium is the thickest layer, made up of muscle.
    • The endocardium is the innermost layer, thin and smooth.
    • The atrioventricular (AV) node is located in the wall of the right atrium and receives impulses from the SA node.
    • The bundle of His splits into left and right bundle branches, carrying electrical impulses to the ventricles.
    • The SA node, located in the wall of the right atrium, is the pacemaker of the heart.

    Blood Pressure and Blood Flow

    • Blood pressure increases with cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and blood volume.
    • Vasodilation decreases blood pressure, while vasoconstriction increases it.
    • Blood flows through the heart in the following order: atria, ventricles, pulmonary trunk, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, and peripheral arteries.

    Blood Vessels

    • Arteries are strong, elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart.
    • Arterioles are smaller, muscular arteries that regulate blood pressure.
    • Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, allowing for diffusion of oxygen and nutrients.
    • Venules are small vessels that collect blood from capillaries.
    • Veins are larger, thinner vessels that carry blood back to the heart.

    Blood

    • Plasma makes up 55% of blood, carrying proteins, nutrients, and waste.
    • Red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen, produced in red bone marrow, and live for approximately 120 days.
    • White blood cells (WBCs) fight infection and are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes.
    • Platelets are essential for blood clotting, produced in red bone marrow.

    Blood Types

    • The ABO blood group system has four types: A, B, AB, and O.
    • The Rh blood type system has positive (Rh+) and negative (Rh-) types.
    • Type O blood is the universal donor type, and type AB is the universal recipient type.

    Blood Disorders

    • Anemia is a deficiency of RBCs or hemoglobin, causing fatigue, weakness, and pallor.
    • Polycythemia vera is an overproduction of RBCs, causing hypertension and blood clots.
    • Erythroblastosis fetalis is a condition where maternal antibodies attack fetal RBCs, causing anemia and jaundice.

    Other

    • The cardiac conduction system regulates heart rhythm, with the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.

    • Dysrhythmia is an abnormal heart rhythm, caused by elevated potassium ions, sympathetic nerve stimulation, or other factors.### Blood and Circulatory System

    • Anemia is a condition where there are not enough red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood to carry an adequate amount of oxygen to the body's cells.

    • Basophils are white blood cells that release substances such as histamine, which promotes inflammation, and heparin, which is an anticoagulant.

    • The liver uses an orange pigment called bilirubin to make bile needed for the digestion of fats.

    • Biliverdin is a pigment released from a destroyed red blood cell.

    Hemoglobin and Lipoproteins

    • Hemoglobin that is not carrying oxygen is called deoxyhemoglobin, and because it may now carry carbon dioxide, it is also called carbaminohemoglobin.
    • There are different types of lipoproteins found in blood, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and chylomicrons.

    Blood Clotting and White Blood Cells

    • The process of a blood clot replacing the platelet plug at the site of a blood vessel injury is called blood coagulation.
    • White blood cells (WBCs) are also called leukocytes.
    • If a patient has a white blood cell count above 10,000 cells per cubic millimeter of blood, the patient has leukocytosis and probably has a bacterial infection.
    • A white blood cell count that is below normal is called leukopenia.

    Lipid Transport and Immunity

    • Lipids must combine with molecules called lipoproteins to be transported in the bloodstream.
    • The white blood cells that provide immunity for the body are the lymphocytes.

    Blood Cell Counts and Heart Function

    • The abbreviation used for the term hemoglobin is Hgb.
    • Albumins are the smallest of the plasma proteins that pull water into the bloodstream to help maintain blood pressure.
    • The formation of a blood clot is called coagulation.
    • The purpose of the four valves of the heart is to ensure one-way blood flow.
    • Body cells surrounding capillaries usually have a low oxygen concentration.
    • Water is forced through capillary walls by filtration.
    • In the clinical setting, blood pressure refers to arterial pressure.
    • Blood pressure is greatest in the arteries when the ventricles contract.
    • A myocardial infarction is caused by obstruction of blood flow to the heart muscle.
    • The parietal pericardium lies on top of the visceral pericardium.

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    Test your knowledge of human physiology with these questions about the heart valves and capillary function.

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