Recent

  • Show all results for ""

🎧 New: AI-Generated Podcasts Turn your study notes into engaging audio conversations. Learn more

Physiology of Metabolism
190 Questions
0 Views

Physiology of Metabolism

Created by
@StreamlinedRutherfordium

Podcast Beta

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of storing energy during digestion?

  • To break down large molecules into smaller ones
  • To mobilize energy when no energy intake is taking place
  • To synthesize ATP for immediate energy utilization
  • To avoid large fluctuations of glucose and other compounds (correct)

    • What is the primary site of absorption for small molecules from digestion?

  • Small intestine (correct)
  • Liver
  • Stomach
  • Large intestine

    • What is the primary energy currency utilized by cells?

  • Glucose
  • ATP (correct)
  • Protein
  • Fat

    • What is the primary function of adipose tissue?

    <p>To store energy reserves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be converted into glucose and fatty acids?

    <p>Amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of nutrient conversion and metabolism?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary fate of excess molecules during digestion?

    <p>Storage as glycogen and fat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of non-essential amino acids?

    <p>To form glucose and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary byproduct of cellular respiration?

    <p>CO2 and H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mobilizing energy when no energy intake is taking place?

    <p>To provide energy for cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lipases in the gastrointestinal system?

    <p>To split fats into glycerol and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the end result of the oxidation of monomers in body cells?

    <p>The release of primary heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of metabolism in an organism?

    <p>To convert food into energy for cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle that governs metabolism?

    <p>The Law of Conservation of Energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of converting food into building blocks for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between anabolism and catabolism?

    <p>Anabolism and catabolism are mutually opposite but closely related processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the energy released during the breakdown of monomers in body cells?

    <p>Primary heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ATP in metabolism?

    <p>To store energy for cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of converting CO2 and H2O into chemical energy?

    <p>Oxidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of assimilation processes in an organism?

    <p>To synthesize proteins and lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary end product of glycolysis?

    <p>Pyruvate, water molecules, ATP, and NADH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of building cells' components such as proteins and nucleic acids?

    <p>Assimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of energy defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C?

    <p>Joule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the energy used in basal metabolism composed of?

    <p>Energy used in metabolic processes and energy used by the heart, respiratory muscles, kidneys, and other organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of decreased metabolic rate and lack of activity on caloric needs in geriatric animals?

    <p>Decrease caloric needs by 30% to 40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the minimum amount of energy needed for maintaining life processes during the physiological resting state?

    <p>Basal metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of breaking down organic matter into simple elements?

    <p>Dissimilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of heat formed during assimilation?

    <p>Secondary heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the energy used in the body determined?

    <p>By the amount of heat that is released from the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of energy that is consumed through eating and drinking?

    <p>Calorie</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of essential amino acids in the body?

    <p>To facilitate protein synthesis in muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a lack of even one essential amino acid in the body?

    <p>Metabolic disturbances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of leucine and isoleucine in the brain?

    <p>Energy production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of amino acids that are not used for protein synthesis in the liver?

    <p>They are converted into fats and carbohydrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for proteins that contain all essential amino acids?

    <p>Complete proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of tryptophan in the brain?

    <p>Serotonin synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of taking too much of an amino acid?

    <p>Deamination and formation of toxic ammonia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of valine in the body?

    <p>Transfer of information in nerves and synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of converting amino acids into energy or building blocks for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates?

    <p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the liver in protein exchange?

    <p>Main importance in protein exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of proteins in the body?

    <p>To provide structural components to tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to non-used protein in the body?

    <p>It is degraded and excreted in the urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three major functional protein pools in the body?

    <p>Plasma, muscle, and visceral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are proteins obtained from food?

    <p>Through enzymatic digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to amino acids after they are absorbed into the blood?

    <p>They are transported to tissues and the liver for protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of amino acids that are not used for protein synthesis?

    <p>They are converted into glucose and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of proteases in protein metabolism?

    <p>To break down proteins into amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of protein turnover in the body?

    <p>It is a dynamic process that occurs constantly in tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of phosphorylating amino acids during protein synthesis?

    <p>To prepare amino acids for transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the experiment using radioactive nitrogen-labeled amino acids?

    <p>It demonstrated the rapid turnover of proteins in certain tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of their daily protein requirement do cows receive from ruminal microorganisms?

    <p>25%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of somatotropic hormone in protein exchange?

    <p>Promotes protein formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the protein exchange center located?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the energy yield from splitting 1g of proteins?

    <p>4.1 kcal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of proteins are synthesized by ruminal microorganisms?

    <p>Very high-quality proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of proteins in the body?

    <p>Plastic processes, defense reactions, enzymes, transport, and energy source</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What regulates protein exchange indirectly?

    <p>All internal secretion glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of nitrogen is used by ruminal microorganisms to synthesize amino acids?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of insulin in protein exchange?

    <p>Promotes amino acid entering into cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of impaired liver function on protein metabolism?

    <p>Severely impaired protein exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary metabolic fuel for monogastric animals?

    <p>Glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is most of the glucose processed in the body?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the only direct storage form of glucose in the body?

    <p>Glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of storing glucose as glycogen?

    <p>Compact storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organs use glucose as their primary energy source?

    <p>Brain, Erythrocytes, and Renal Medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the liver regulate carbohydrate metabolism?

    <p>By storing and releasing glucose as glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the autonomic nervous system in carbohydrate metabolism?

    <p>To transfer impulses to the liver to increase glucose synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cortisol and growth hormone in carbohydrate metabolism?

    <p>To maintain glucose levels during prolonged starvation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glucagon in carbohydrate metabolism?

    <p>To split glycogen and release energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of insulin in carbohydrate metabolism?

    <p>To stimulate glycogenesis and increase glucose uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of energy for the nervous system?

    <p>Glucose delivered to tissues through the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary fate of carbohydrates absorbed into the bloodstream?

    <p>They are used for energetic processes and the rest is stored as glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of carbohydrates in the body?

    <p>To provide energy, act as a cell component, and support nerve function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of glucose in the liver?

    <p>Glycerin and fatty acids from lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glycogen in the liver?

    <p>To act as a buffer for excess glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism?

    <p>They are interconnected and interdependent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lactose?

    <p>To provide nutrients for the infant during lactation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary fate of excess carbohydrates in the body?

    <p>They are converted into lipids and stored in adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of carbohydrates in the animal diet?

    <p>Large carbohydrate molecules like starch and cellulose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of carbohydrates in muscle contractions?

    <p>To provide energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of thirst arises from lack of water in tissues?

    <p>True thirst</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the total body mass is composed of water in adult animals?

    <p>65%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the equilibrium of fluid compartments is maintained?

    <p>Osmoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are osmoreceptors located?

    <p>Hypothalamus and peripheral tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone intensifies water reabsorption from nephron tubules?

    <p>Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the fluid that lies inside the cells?

    <p>Intracellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of baroreceptors in gastric mucosa?

    <p>Regulation of water and salt metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of water in the brain?

    <p>85%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone increases the level of Na in blood?

    <p>Aldosterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of losing 20-30% of the body's water?

    <p>Death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of metabolic water?

    <p>Oxidation of hydrogen-containing nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of epinephrine on blood vessels of nephron tubules?

    <p>Vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of water in the body?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hypothalamus in water and salt metabolism?

    <p>Regulation of thirst</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of decreased plasma protein concentration?

    <p>Increased filtration of fluid out of capillary tubes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the fluid that lies in serous cavities, such as the eyes and joints?

    <p>Transcellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of receptors are located in the mouth mucosa?

    <p>Receptors for false thirst</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of the total amount of fluid in the body that is intravascular fluid?

    <p>5%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the liver in plasma protein production?

    <p>Production of plasma proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of losing 10-11% of the body's water?

    <p>Severe dehydration with organ function problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of water lost from the body that is classified as an insensible loss?

    <p>Evaporation from the skin or respiratory tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much water is needed per kilogram of dry food for pigs?

    <p>6-8 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of water losses exceeding water gain in the body?

    <p>Dehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the central thirst center located in the brain?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the hormone that stimulates thirst in response to low blood pressure?

    <p>Angiotensin II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of water intake exceeding water output in the body?

    <p>Positive water balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid accompanied by swelling?

    <p>Edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus of thirst in the body?

    <p>Osmoconcentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a loss of water equal to 10% of body weight?

    <p>Severe dehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of rehydrating the body with not only water but also appropriate electrolytes?

    <p>Rehydration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lipids in the body?

    <p>Providing energy and acting as thermal insulator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the lipids that are required by the animal body but cannot be made in sufficient quantity from other substrates?

    <p>Essential fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of lipids that makes them good electrical insulators in nerves?

    <p>Nonpolar nature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between fats and oils?

    <p>Fats have more saturated fatty acids, while oils have more unsaturated fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lipoproteins in the body?

    <p>Transporting lipids in blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of lipid storage in the body?

    <p>Adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of a lack of essential fatty acids?

    <p>Pathological changes in skin and hair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of complex (polar) lipids?

    <p>Polarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glycerol in lipid metabolism?

    <p>Forming esters with fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of waxes in the body?

    <p>Protecting skin and hair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of wax esters with monohydroxy alcohols?

    <p>Protection and lubrication of skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of neutral fat synthesized from carbohydrates?

    <p>Has more unsaturated fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of phospholipids in the body?

    <p>Structural components of cell membranes and emulsifiers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of glycolipids in the body?

    <p>Cell-cell interactions and immune responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of lipoproteins?

    <p>Lipids and proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of cholesterol in the body?

    <p>Structural component of cell membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids?

    <p>Formation of fatty acids and glycerol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of lipases in the gastrointestinal system?

    <p>Breakdown of lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of surfactant in the lungs?

    <p>Lowering of surface tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of complex lipids?

    <p>High molecular weight and esters of fatty acids and alcohols</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the balance of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate is interfered with?

    <p>Ketones are formed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How much water is formed when 100g of fat is burned?

    <p>107g of water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of a camel's hump?

    <p>It stores water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the regulatory center of lipid metabolism located?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the brain cortex in lipid metabolism?

    <p>It plays a very important role</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to fatty tissues during stress?

    <p>They are broken down</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do fatty tissues need insulin?

    <p>To use glucose as an energy source</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is involved in lipid metabolism?

    <p>All internal secretion glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characteristic of animals during hibernation?

    <p>They can survive without water for a long time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of water in lipid metabolism?

    <p>It is very significant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of cholesterol in the body?

    <p>To synthesize steroid and sex hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of bile acids in lipid absorption?

    <p>To form a complex with fatty acids for absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of oxalacetate in the body?

    <p>Glucose, glycogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the phrase 'Fats burn in a carbohydrate flame'?

    <p>Fats require carbohydrates to be oxidized and produce energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of saturated fatty acids in the body?

    <p>To participate in the synthesis of milk fat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of fatty acids that are not used for energy production?

    <p>They are stored as triglycerides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lipases in the body?

    <p>To break down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of omega-3 fatty acids in the body?

    <p>To decrease the levels of cholesterol in the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of fatty acid synthesis in the body?

    <p>Liver, adipose tissues, and mammary glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a lack of carbohydrates in the body?

    <p>Decreased energy production from fats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of heat loss occurs through radiation?

    <p>55-65%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are thermoreceptors mainly located in the skin?

    <p>Outer layer of dermis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of converting CO2 and H2O into chemical energy?

    <p>Photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in thermoregulation?

    <p>Sensing heat and cold temperatures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of heat loss through evaporation?

    <p>30%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system in thermoregulation?

    <p>Responding to thermal stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the minimum amount of energy needed for maintaining life processes during the physiological resting state?

    <p>Basal metabolic rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the activity of the hypothalamus when it is cold?

    <p>Increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of brown fat in newborns?

    <p>Heat production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a body temperature drop below 34°C?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of fever or pyrexia?

    <p>To kill bacteria and inhibit viruses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the regulation of heat production and heat release?

    <p>Thermoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the method that measures mid- and long-wave infrared radiation emitted by all objects and converts it to temperature?

    <p>Thermography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a body temperature above 45°C?

    <p>Fatal brain damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a temporary reduction in body temperature, e.g., in bats and hummingbirds?

    <p>Torpor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the internal body part that maintains a relatively constant temperature?

    <p>Internal body part</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism for heat transfer in the body?

    <p>Convection through the bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are humans more susceptible to sunburns?

    <p>Cold sensations are felt faster than warmth sensations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference in heat tolerance between cattle and pigs?

    <p>Cattle are able to pant more effectively than pigs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism for heat loss in birds?

    <p>Evaporation through the air sacs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of high humidity on evaporation in animals?

    <p>It decreases the rate of evaporation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of arteriovenous anastomoses in the body?

    <p>To increase blood flow to the skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism for non-shivering thermogenesis in animals?

    <p>Increased production of thyroid hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of brown fat in the body?

    <p>To produce heat through metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why homeothermic animals need to maintain a high metabolic rate in cold weather?

    <p>To maintain a constant body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of animals have a constant body temperature in the summer, but it decreases in the winter?

    <p>Heterothermic animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the range of daily fluctuations in internal body temperature?

    <p>1°C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of heat production in the body?

    <p>To regulate body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the body is divided into superficial and internal parts based on thermoregulation?

    <p>Body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which poikilothermic animals regulate their body temperature?

    <p>Behavioral adaptations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do older animals have a lower body temperature?

    <p>Due to decreased metabolic rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the internal body part in thermoregulation?

    <p>To maintain a constant body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using thermography to monitor animal health?

    <p>It can measure temperature distribution over a large area.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of using special ear tag sensors to monitor animal health?

    <p>They may not be as accurate as other methods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of using infrared lamps to warm animals in case of hypothermia?

    <p>They can be targeted to specific areas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of using electric heating mats to warm animals in case of hypothermia?

    <p>They can cause burns if not properly monitored.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of using clothing to warm animals in case of hypothermia?

    <p>It provides insulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of using rubber gloves with warm water to warm animals in case of hypothermia?

    <p>They require frequent reheating of water.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an advantage of using warm air to warm animals in case of hypothermia?

    <p>It is quick and effective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a disadvantage of using oral thermometry to monitor animal health?

    <p>It may not be as accurate as other methods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Physiology of Metabolism

    • In the gastrointestinal system, polymers are broken down into monomers:
      • Proteases: proteins into amino acids
      • Lipases: fats into glycerol and fatty acids
      • Amylases: carbohydrates into monosaccharides
    • Monomers can be:
      • Converted into central metabolites (pyruvates, Acetyl-CoA, etc.) or oxidized to CO2 and H2O, releasing chemical energy
      • Used to form substances (assimilated) such as glycogen, protein, and triglycerides, with energy supplied by ATP and secondary heat released

    Metabolism

    • Metabolism is the sum of physical and chemical processes in an organism
    • Main purposes of metabolism:
      • Converting food to energy for cellular processes
      • Converting food to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates
      • Eliminating nitrogenous wastes
    • Metabolism involves various biochemical reactions that transform one form of energy into another
    • Any molecule synthesized or utilized in metabolism is a physically recognizable form of energy
    • Metabolism follows the Law of Conservation of Energy
    • Metabolism consists of two opposite but closely related processes:
      • Anabolism (assimilation): building cells' components, consuming energy
      • Catabolism (dissimilation): breaking down organic matter, releasing energy

    Factors Affecting Metabolism Rate

    • Feeding
    • Physical activity
    • Environmental temperature
    • Age
    • Gender
    • Body mass
    • Functional state of the nervous system (stress, rest, etc.)

    Basal Metabolism

    • Minimum amount of energy needed for maintaining life processes during physiological resting state
    • Depends on:
      • Gender, age, body mass, sleep or awake state, body temperature
    • Evaluated and compared by amount of heat in kilocalories (kcal) per 1kg of body weight
    • Energy consumption per 1kg of body weight is higher in smaller animals than in larger animals

    Energy

    • Use of energy in the body is determined by the amount of heat released
    • Calories: units of energy consumed through eating and drinking, and expended through physical activity
    • Joule: unit of energy, defined as the amount required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1°C
    • Energy is needed by cells continuously, but only supplied to the body while food is digested
    • The body must store energy during digestion and mobilize energy when no intake occurs

    Protein Metabolism

    • Proteins are essential for life-supporting processes, containing nitrogen, and are a source of protein (P).
    • Proteins are constantly synthesized and broken down in tissues, and they are components of all body cells.

    Types of Proteins

    • Proteins can be classified into two categories: animal and plant proteins.
    • The human and animal body has no protein reserves, and all proteins are functional, either part of tissue structures or metabolic systems.

    Protein Pools

    • The body has three major functional protein pools:
      • Plasma proteins and plasma amino acids
      • Muscle protein
      • Visceral (abdominal organs) protein

    Transfer and Synthesis of Proteins

    • Proteins obtained from food are split into amino acids with the help of enzymes.
    • Amino acids are then phosphorylated and absorbed into the blood, and transported to tissues and the liver.
    • In tissues, amino acids are synthesized into tissue-specific proteins.
    • Amino acids are also obtained from the decomposition of cell proteins.

    Amino Acids

    • All proteins are made of 20-25 amino acids (AmAc).
    • The body can transform one AmAc into another, which is needed at a particular moment.
    • Irreplaceable or essential amino acids must be obtained from food, while replaceable amino acids can be synthesized in the body.

    Essential Amino Acids

    • In adult animals, essential amino acids include:
      • Leucine (Leu)
      • Isoleucine (Ile)
      • Lysine (Lys)
      • Methionine (Met)
      • Phenylalanine (Phe)
      • Tryptophan (Trp)
      • Valine (Val)
      • Threonine (Thr)
      • Taurine
    • In newborn animals, additional essential amino acids include:
      • Histidine (His)
      • Arginine (Arg)

    Replaceable Amino Acids

    • Replaceable amino acids can be synthesized in the body from other amino acids.

    The Role of Essential Amino Acids

    • Metabolic disturbances can be caused by a lack of even one essential amino acid.
    • Essential amino acids have specific roles in the body, such as:
      • Taurine: stabilizes neuron membrane excitability, critical for normal vision, digestion, heart muscle function, and immune system.
      • Tryptophan: takes part in synthesis of group B vitamins, transforms into serotonin in the brain.
      • Leucine: used for energy production in the brain, essential for liver function.
      • Valine: needed for nerve transfer and synapses, promotes muscle coordination and emotional balance.

    Protein Synthesis

    • Proteins are synthesized from amino acids in tissues.
    • Amino acids that are not used for protein synthesis are deaminated and used for energetic processes or synthesis of fats and carbohydrates.

    Protein Exchange

    • Liver is of main importance in protein exchange.
    • Impaired liver functions lead to impaired protein exchange.
    • Growing animals and animals during lactation require well-balanced food due to increased protein formation.

    The Value of Proteins

    • The value of proteins is determined by the presence of all irreplaceable amino acids.
    • Proteins that contain all essential amino acids are called complete or whole proteins.
    • Proteins that do not contain all essential amino acids are called incomplete proteins.

    The Role of the Liver in Protein Metabolism

    • The liver plays a key role in protein metabolism.
    • Liver dysfunction severely impairs protein exchange.

    Protein Particularities in Ruminants

    • Ruminants, such as cows, receive about 25% of their daily protein requirement from ruminal microorganisms.
    • Ruminal microorganisms can synthesize all irreplaceable amino acids using other amino acids, urea nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, and simple non-protein nitrogen compounds.

    The Use of Proteins

    • Proteins are used for:
      • Plastic processes related to animal growth and development
      • Defense reactions, such as immune substances and antibodies
      • Enzymes and hormones
      • Transporting other chemical substances
      • Serving as an energy source

    Neural Regulation of Protein Exchange

    • Protein exchange is regulated by the protein exchange center, located in the hypothalamus.
    • Humoral regulation of protein exchange involves direct and indirect actions of various hormones.

    Carbohydrates in the Diet

    • Small carbohydrate molecules in the diet: monosaccharides (glucose) and disaccharides (lactose, sucrose)
    • Large carbohydrate molecules in the diet: polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose)

    Carbohydrates in the Body

    • Three most prominent carbohydrates in the body: glucose (monosaccharide), glycogen (polysaccharide), and lactose (disaccharide)

    Importance of Carbohydrates

    • Energy source for the body
    • Component of glycoproteins
    • Provides energy for muscle contractions and relaxation
    • Necessary for myocardium function
    • Essential for nervous system function, with almost no glucose reserves in the brain

    Carbohydrate Metabolism

    • Carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides (glucose) in the digestive tract
    • Glucose is absorbed into the blood and distributed to the body, with the liver and muscles storing it as glycogen
    • Glycogen can be synthesized from glucose, glycerin, fatty acids, amino acids, and volatile fatty acids

    Cellular Metabolism of Carbohydrates

    • Glucose is the primary metabolic fuel for non-herbivores
    • In herbivores, cellulose is the primary carbohydrate intake
    • Ruminants convert carbohydrates to volatile fatty acids in the forestomach
    • Monogastric herbivores convert carbohydrates to volatile fatty acids in the large intestine

    Glucose Processing in the Liver

    • The liver processes most of the glucose received via the portal vein
    • Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles
    • Excess glucose is converted to lipids and stored in adipose tissue

    Benefits of Glycogen Storage

    • Glycogen is a large, insoluble molecule that does not affect osmotic balance
    • It is compact, allowing for efficient energy storage
    • Glycogen is easily broken down for energy

    Organs that Use Glucose as the Predominant Energy Source

    • Brain
    • Erythrocytes
    • Renal medulla
    • Skeletal muscle (under aerobic conditions)
    • Fetal metabolism during gestation
    • Lactose synthesis during lactation

    Neuro-Humoral Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism

    • The liver is the main depot of carbohydrates
    • Muscles are the main consumers of glucose
    • The kidneys excrete excess glucose
    • The nervous system and hormones regulate carbohydrate metabolism

    Regulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism

    • Direct regulation: decreased glucose levels stimulate the "sugar" center, which increases glucose synthesis in the liver
    • Indirect regulation: insulin stimulates glycogenesis, while glucagon, epinephrine, and glucocorticoids break down glycogen and release glucose
    • Other hormones involved: cortisol, growth hormone, and glucagon

    Water Metabolism

    • Water forms the major part of body fluids, acts as a solvent, and participates in enzymatic reactions, thermoregulation, and digestive processes.
    • Water also moisturizes air in the respiratory tract, mucous membranes, and acts as a lubricant for joints and a shock absorber for organs.

    Water in the Body

    • The human body is composed of approximately 65% water, with newborns having around 75-80% water content.
    • Water distribution varies across different organs, with the brain having 85% water, heart having 80%, and blood having 83%.
    • Bones have a lower water content, around 20%.
    • Losing 10-11% of water leads to severe dehydration and organ function problems, while losing 20-30% of water can be fatal.

    Fluid Compartments

    • The body maintains equilibrium of fluid compartments through osmoregulation.
    • Extracellular fluid (ECF) makes up 20% of the total fluid, with 5% being intravascular fluid and the rest being lymphatic and interstitial fluid.
    • Intracellular fluid (ICF) accounts for 40% of the total fluid, located within cells.
    • Transcellular fluid (TCF) is a small, variable amount found in serous cavities.

    Water Gain and Loss

    • Water can be gained through drinking, food, and metabolic water (via oxidation of hydrogen-containing nutrients).
    • The body loses water through insensible loss (evaporation from skin and respiratory tract) and sensible loss (urine, feces, and body secretions).
    • Water needs vary across different animal species, with pigs requiring 6-8 liters/kg of dry food, cows requiring 4-6 liters/kg, and horses and sheep requiring 2-3 liters/kg.

    Water Balance in the Body

    • Water balance is achieved when water intake equals water output.
    • Negative water balance occurs when water loss exceeds water gain, leading to dehydration.
    • Dehydration can occur due to inadequate drinking water, diarrhea, vomiting, or excessive sweating.
    • A skin fold test can check for dehydration.

    Dehydration

    • Dehydration develops when water losses exceed water gain, causing the body to lose water from the extracellular fluid compartment first, followed by a shift from intracellular to extracellular fluid.
    • A loss of 10% of body weight is considered severe for most animals.
    • Dehydration leads to the depletion of water and electrolytes, requiring rehydration with both water and electrolytes.

    Regulation of Water Balance

    • The kidneys conserve water when water losses exceed water gain.
    • The thirst mechanism is triggered by the hypothalamus, which is stimulated by an increase in osmoconcentration (loss of water and increased salt concentration).
    • Angiotensin II, a kidney hormone, also stimulates thirst in response to low blood pressure.

    Positive Water Balance

    • Positive water balance occurs when water intake exceeds output, leading to excess water storage in the body.
    • This can result in edema, an abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid accompanied by swelling.

    Edema

    • Factors that contribute to edema include increased capillary pressure, increased capillary permeability, decreased plasma protein concentration, and obstruction of lymphatic vessels.
    • Heart failure can lead to increased capillary pressures and edema due to increased venous pressure.

    Neural Regulation of Water and Salt Metabolism

    • Receptors involved in water and salt metabolism regulation include:
      • Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus and tissues
      • Baroreceptors in the gastric mucosa
      • Volume receptors in blood vessels
    • "True" thirst arises from lack of water in tissues, whereas "false" thirst arises from dryness of the mouth and throat.

    Humoral Regulation of Water and Salt Metabolism

    • Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) from the neurohypophysis intensifies water reabsorption from nephron tubules, leading to water retention in the body.
    • Aldosterone from the adrenal gland cortex intensifies Na reabsorption from nephron tubules, increasing blood Na levels.
    • Epinephrine from the adrenal gland medulla narrows blood vessels of nephron tubules, decreasing filtration and urine output, thereby retaining water in the body.

    Lipid Metabolism

    • Lipids comprise a group of naturally occurring molecules, including fats, sterols, phospholipids, and others, made up of glycerol and fatty acids.

    Properties of Lipids

    • Lipids are relatively insoluble in water and soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether, chloroform, benzole, and acetone.
    • Lipids are stored in adipose tissue, serve as thermal insulators, and are nonpolar lipids that serve as electrical insulators in nerves.

    Classes of Lipids

    • Simple (neutral) lipids
    • Complex (polar) lipids
    • Precursor and derived lipids (neutral)

    Simple Lipids

    • Fats and oils: esters of fatty acids with glycerol
    • Waxes: esters of fatty acids with high molecular weight monohydroxy alcohols
    • Fats (triglycerides): solid at room temperature, with more long-chain fatty acids and more saturated fatty acids
    • Oils (triglycerols): liquid at room temperature, with relatively short-chain fatty acids and more unsaturated fatty acids

    Complex Lipids

    • Phospholipids: lipids containing fatty acids, alcohol, and phosphoric acid residue
    • Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): lipids containing fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate
    • Other complex lipids: lipids such as sulfolipids and aminolipids, including lipoproteins

    Phospholipids

    • Structure: glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group
    • Physiological significance: structural components of cell membranes, emulsifiers, and involved in lipid absorption and transport

    Glycolipids

    • Functions: cell-cell interactions, immune responses, and determining blood group

    Lipoproteins

    • Lipids + proteins
    • Structural lipoproteins: widely distributed in tissues, present in cellular and subcellular membranes
    • Transport lipoproteins: present in blood plasma, composed of apolipoprotein and different types of lipids

    Types of Lipoproteins

    • Chylomicrons (1-2% protein, 98-99% lipid)
    • VLDL (7-10% protein, 90-93% lipid)
    • LDL (10-20% protein, 80-90% lipid)
    • HDL (35-55% protein, 45-65% lipid)

    Precursor and Derived Lipids

    • Derived lipids: produced from simple and compound lipids through hydrolysis
    • Include fatty acids, glycerol, cholesterol, steroid hormones, fatty aldehydes, and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

    Cholesterol

    • Essential for health, composing around 35% of lipids in animal cell membranes
    • Precursor of steroid and sex hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D

    Essential Fatty Acids

    • Omega 6 and Omega 3
    • Found in fish, shellfish, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, olive oil, peanuts, and almonds
    • Advisable to take 30% of daily requirements of kcal from fats, with 5% being essential fatty acids

    Thermoregulation

    • Thermoregulation is the body's ability to maintain a relatively constant internal temperature through heat production and heat loss.
    • A constant body temperature is necessary for normal metabolic processes, as enzymes work only within certain temperature limits.

    Types of Thermoregulation

    • Homeothermic (Endothermic) Animals: mammals and birds, maintain constant body temperature despite different environmental temperatures.
    • Heterothermic Animals: animals that have a constant body temperature in the summer, but it decreases in the winter (e.g., bears, hedgehogs, badgers).
    • Poikilothermic (Ectothermic) Animals: animals that have a body temperature that varies depending on the surrounding temperature (e.g., fish, reptiles, amphibians).

    Body Temperature Regulation

    • The body is divided into two parts: superficial body (shell) part and internal body (core) part.
    • The superficial body part temperature changes depending on environmental factors, while the internal body part maintains a relatively constant temperature.
    • Daily fluctuations in body temperature can be up to 1°C, and vary depending on factors such as eating, physical work, and sleep.

    Heat Production and Loss

    • Heat production: chemical thermoregulation, which occurs through muscle activity, liver metabolism, and gastrointestinal tract metabolism.
    • Heat loss: physical thermoregulation, which occurs through evaporation, convection, radiation, and conduction.
    • Radiation is the main form of heat loss, accounting for 55-65% of heat loss.

    Regulation of Thermoregulation

    • Neural Regulation: involves the hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, and autonomic nervous system.
    • Humoral Regulation: involves the endocrine system and stress hormones.
    • Behavioral Regulation: involves conscious and unconscious behaviors, such as changing body posture or seeking shade.

    Thermoreceptors

    • Krause End Bulbs: sensitive to low temperatures, located in the outer layer of dermis.
    • Ruffini Endings: sensitive to increases in temperature, located deeper in the dermis.
    • Thermoreceptors: located in the CNS, skin, and internal organs, respond to changes in temperature.

    Heat Transfer in the Body

    • Heat is transferred through the body by blood, which is a poor conductor of heat.
    • Arterioles and arteriovenous anastomoses play a crucial role in heat transfer.

    Responses to Extremes of Heat

    • Panting and sweating are responses to heat stress, and are influenced by humidity and temperature.
    • Different species have varying abilities to withstand extreme temperatures, such as cattle and sheep being more tolerant of heat.

    Keeping Warm in the Extremities

    • Arterioles and veins are located close together, allowing for heat transfer from arterial to venous blood.
    • Shivering is a mechanism to produce heat, and can be increased in response to cold stress.
    • Non-shivering thermogenesis is a mechanism to increase heat production without shivering, achieved through increased thyroid hormone production.

    Thermoregulation in Practice

    • Thermometry is the measurement of temperature, and is essential in assessing the health status of animals.
    • Different methods of thermometry, such as rectal thermometry, non-contact thermometry, and thermochips, have their own advantages and disadvantages.

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Description

    Quiz about the process of metabolism in the human body, covering the breakdown of macromolecules into monomers and their conversion into energy.

    More Quizzes Like This

    Biochemistry and Physiology of Fatty Acids Metabolism Quiz
    85 questions

    Biochemistry and Physiology of Fatty Acids Metabolism Quiz

    CredibleJuxtaposition avatar
    CredibleJuxtaposition
    Mineral Metabolism in Biochemistry
    5 questions

    Mineral Metabolism in Biochemistry

    SmilingSymbol avatar
    SmilingSymbol
    Biochemistry II: Lipids Metabolism - Lecture 8
    10 questions

    Biochemistry II: Lipids Metabolism - Lecture 8

    SkillfulLogarithm avatar
    SkillfulLogarithm
    Biochemistry Lec-11: Ammonia Metabolism
    24 questions

    Biochemistry Lec-11: Ammonia Metabolism

    IrresistibleTroll avatar
    IrresistibleTroll
    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser