Physiology of Cardiovascular System
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Questions and Answers

What do mitochondria primarily form that reacts with cytochrome oxidase?

  • Hydrogen peroxide
  • Carbon dioxide
  • Nitrate (correct)
  • Oxygen

What is the molecule that gets converted into cGMP?

  • Cytochrome
  • Xanthine oxidase
  • Nitric oxide (NO) (correct)
  • Nitrate

What is the primary function of cGMP in smooth muscle tissue?

  • Stimulating platelet aggregation
  • Inhibiting gene expression
  • Contraction of muscle tissue
  • Relaxation of smooth muscle (correct)

At high doses, what does the activation of nitric oxide lead to?

<p>Relaxation of smooth muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is involved in the conversion process leading to the formation of NO?

<p>Xanthine oxidase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is angiotensin I converted to?

<p>Angiotensin II (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What receptor does angiotensin II primarily act on to cause vasoconstriction?

<p>AT1 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does angiotensin II have on the adrenal gland?

<p>Stimulates aldosterone release (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, dopamine primarily acts on which receptors to induce vasoconstriction?

<p>Alpha and beta (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At low doses, what physiological effect do high potency nitrates have?

<p>Induce vasorelaxation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of aldosterone in the body?

<p>Promote sodium and water reabsorption (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does dopamine employ at low doses for vasorelaxation?

<p>Acts on D2 receptors to promote cAMP release (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is responsible for the bioactivation of high potency nitrates?

<p>Aldehyde dehydrogenase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is primarily determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance?

<p>Arterial pressure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential consequence of excessive angiotensin II signaling?

<p>Increased vascular resistance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of -entans in treating pulmonary HTN?

<p>Inhibit endothelin receptors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do -sartans function in the treatment of hypertension?

<p>Inhibit AT1 receptors to decrease plasma volume (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main pharmacological action of Alirocumab?

<p>Inhibit PCSK9 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Amlodipine among calcium channel blockers?

<p>It relaxes blood vessels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Aliskiren in hypertension management?

<p>It serves as a renin release inhibitor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does Acetazolamide utilize as a therapy?

<p>Inhibit carbonic anhydrase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an expected physiological outcome of using -entans?

<p>Lowered pulmonary artery pressure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes statins?

<p>They are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of increased vascular radius?

<p>Decreased blood flow resistance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications targets bradykinin breakdown?

<p>Pril medications (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, the activation of bempedoic acid occurs through which of the following?

<p>CYP450 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements about beta blockers is true?

<p>They should be avoided in patients with myocardial conduction defects. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do bile acid binding resins have on LDL uptake?

<p>They decrease LDL uptake. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bumetanide is classified as what type of diuretic?

<p>Loop diuretic (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of carbonic anhydrase is located in the luminal brush border membrane?

<p>CA type IV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?

<p>Preventing H2CO3 formation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key cardiovascular effect of beta blockers?

<p>Decrease heart rate and force of contraction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do bile acid binding resins impact cholesterol levels?

<p>They decrease the levels of circulating bile acids. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the role of ATP citrate lyase inhibitors?

<p>They inhibit fat accumulation in the liver. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of beta blockers on myocardial oxygen demand?

<p>They prevent HTN induced damage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs at high doses of a certain drug via CYP450?

<p>Inactivation occurs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the bioactivation pathway for high potency nitrates at low doses?

<p>By aldehyde dehydrogenase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does dopamine have at moderate doses (2-5 micrograms) on beta 1 receptors?

<p>Increases cardiac contractility (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What molecule is released following the conversion of NO?

<p>cGMP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is involved in converting nitrates into NO?

<p>Cytochrome oxidase (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of cGMP in the signal transduction pathway described?

<p>Relaxes smooth muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about Atenolol is true?

<p>It is a cardioselective beta blocker. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At which dose range is dopamine considered to act primarily on beta 1 receptors?

<p>2-5 micrograms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a physiological effect of cGMP in relation to smooth muscle?

<p>It induces muscle relaxation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is a condition that does NOT involve the action of nitrates in the body?

<p>Increasing vascular resistance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does Clonidine have on smooth muscle?

<p>Relaxes smooth muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is classified as a bile acid binding resin?

<p>Cholestyramine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Empagliflozin inhibit?

<p>SGLT2 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about Ezetimibe?

<p>It blocks cholesterol absorption (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action of Diltiazem?

<p>Blocks L-type calcium channels and decreases heart rate (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication should not be given to patients with decompensated heart failure?

<p>Carvedilol (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is a fibric acid derivative?

<p>Fenofibrate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cholestyramine in lipid management?

<p>It binds bile acids, lowering cholesterol (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is used to treat hypertension crises?

<p>Clonidine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication acts as an ANGPTL3 inhibitor?

<p>Evinacumab (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes Heart Failure with preserved Ejection Fraction (HFpEF)?

<p>LVEF greater than 50% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication may prevent OATP1B1 uptake of statins?

<p>Gemfibrozil (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is a thiazide diuretic?

<p>Chlorthalidone (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What reaction occurs involving either cytochrome oxidase or xanthine oxidase with the compound that gets converted to NO?

<p>They both react with nitrate. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between NO and cGMP in smooth muscle relaxation?

<p>NO is converted to cGMP. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect does cGMP have on smooth muscle tissue?

<p>It prevents muscle contraction and promotes relaxation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, what is a consequence of the activation of nitric oxide?

<p>Vasodilation and inhibition of platelet aggregation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the role of cGMP in smooth muscle tissues?

<p>cGMP facilitates relaxation and opposes the actions of calcium ions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of bempedoic acid in biochemical processes?

<p>ATP citrate lyase inhibition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do bile acid binding resins affect LDL cholesterol levels?

<p>Create complexes that cause a compensatory increase in LDL uptake (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which carbonic anhydrase type is specifically present in the basolateral membrane?

<p>CA type IV (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of administering high doses of beta blockers?

<p>Reduction in heart rate and myocardial oxygen demand (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism do carbonic anhydrase inhibitors primarily employ?

<p>Interference with CO2 uptake (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of using calcium channel blockers in patients with myocardial conduction defects?

<p>They may exacerbate conduction defects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do loop diuretics like bumetanide have on the cardiovascular system?

<p>Reduce fluid overload and lower blood pressure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of nonselective alpha and beta blockers like carvedilol?

<p>They block both alpha and beta receptors, leading to reduced blood pressure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does the activation of CYP450 at high doses have?

<p>Influences drug bioactivation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of aldehyde dehydrogenase in the bioactivation of high potency nitrates?

<p>It bioactivates nitrates to form an active compound. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At which dose does dopamine primarily increase cardiac contractility via beta 1 receptors?

<p>Moderate doses (2-5 micrograms) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced when high potency nitrates are bioactivated in the mitochondria?

<p>Nitric oxide (NO) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which two enzymes can react with a certain molecule formed from high potency nitrates?

<p>Cytochrome oxidase and xanthine oxidase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the end result of nitric oxide converting to cGMP in smooth muscle?

<p>Relaxation of smooth muscle (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary physiological effect of cGMP in relation to vascular smooth muscle?

<p>Vasodilation and decreased heart rate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological effect occurs with high doses of dopamine in terms of receptor activation?

<p>Activation of beta 1 receptors increases heart rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism through which high potency nitrates exert their effect on smooth muscle?

<p>Activation of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptors do nitrates affect to prevent platelet aggregation?

<p>cGMP receptors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, the activation of certain pathways occurs through which metabolic process related to CYP450?

<p>Active drug formation leading to enhanced effects (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which class of medications is primarily used to treat pulmonary hypertension?

<p>-entans (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism of action for aliskiren?

<p>Inhibits renin release (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drug works by decreasing the rate and force of cardiac contraction?

<p>Amlodipine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of acetazolamide in the body?

<p>Carbonic anhydrase inhibition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication inhibits the generation of angiotensin II?

<p>Aliskiren (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which compound is known to be converted to form angiotensin II?

<p>Angiotensinogen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do -sartans primarily have in hypertension management?

<p>Inhibit AT1 receptors (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which medication is classified as a PCSK9 inhibitor?

<p>Alirocumab (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of diuretic is amiloride classified as?

<p>Potassium-sparing diuretic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of angiotensin II in the cardiovascular system?

<p>Promotes aldosterone secretion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does angiotensin II have in the body?

<p>It stimulates aldosterone release and causes vasoconstriction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What receptors does dopamine act on at low doses for vasorelaxation?

<p>D2 receptors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal gland?

<p>Activation of angiotensin II. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At high doses, which effect does dopamine have on the peripheral resistance?

<p>It increases peripheral resistance through beta 1 activation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does angiotensin II affect vascular smooth muscle?

<p>It binds to AT1 receptors to cause vasoconstriction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mechanism by which nitrates exert their therapeutic effects at low doses?

<p>They are bioactivated to promote vasodilation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What enzyme is involved in converting angiotensin I to angiotensin II?

<p>ACE. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do high potency nitrates have on the mitochondria?

<p>They are bioactivated by aldehyde dehydrogenase within mitochondria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the outcome of excessive angiotensin II signaling?

<p>Increased sodium and water reabsorption leading to hypertension. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of aldosterone released by angiotensin II?

<p>Facilitating the reabsorption of sodium and water. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What class of drug is Carvedilol and who should it not be given to?

<p>A beta blocker, should not be given to patients with decompensated heart failure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of Clonidine in treating hypertension?

<p>It stimulates alpha-2 adrenergic receptors to decrease sympathetic outflow (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a possible drug interaction with digoxin?

<p>It may cause increased toxicity when combined with verapamil (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following medications is classified as a bile acid binding resin?

<p>Cholestyramine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of empagliflozin?

<p>It is an SGLT2 inhibitor that promotes glucose excretion in urine (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dichlorphenamide acts primarily as what type of drug?

<p>Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does Ezetimibe use to affect cholesterol levels?

<p>Inhibits cholesterol absorption in the intestine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drug should not be combined with Ca2+ due to the risk of malignant arrhythmias?

<p>Digoxin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential interaction of ranolazine?

<p>Increases levels of warfarin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drug is known to be a fibric acid derivative?

<p>Fenofibrate (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is true about Gemfibrozil?

<p>It decreases triglyceride levels via PPAR-alpha activation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does Diltiazem have on cardiac function?

<p>Reduces heart rate and myocardial oxygen consumption (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of drug is Evinacumab?

<p>An ANGPTL3 inhibitor (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following drugs inhibits sodium reabsorption in the proximal tubule?

<p>Acetazolamide (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What are endothelin receptor antagonists used to treat?

Endothelin receptor antagonists are used to treat pulmonary hypertension.

What do the -pril medications inhibit?

Angiotensin II and aldosterone are inhibited, preventing the breakdown of bradykinin.

What do Sartans do?

Sartans act to inhibit AT1 receptors to decrease plasma volume.

What kind of inhibitors are statins?

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors.

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What is acetazolamide?

Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor.

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What type of inhibitor is alirocumab?

Alirocumab is a PCSK9 inhibitor.

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What is aliskiren?

Aliskiren is a renin release inhibitor used to treat HTN.

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What is amiloride?

Amiloride is an ENaC inhibiting potassium sparing diuretic.

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What does amlodipine do?

Amlodipine is a vascular L-type calcium channel blocker that decreases the rate and force of cardiac contraction and relaxes blood vessels.

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What is angiotensinogen converted to?

Angiotensinogen is converted to angiotensin I then to angiotensin II.

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Nitrate Conversion

Nitrates are converted to nitric oxide (NO) by either mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase or xanthine oxidase.

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Nitric Oxide (NO) Function

Nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule that relaxes smooth muscle and prevents platelet aggregation.

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Nitric Oxide (NO)

Nitric oxide (NO) is produced by the body and is involved in many important physiological processes.

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Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase

Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase is one of the enzymes that converts nitrate to nitric oxide (NO).

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Xanthine Oxidase

Xanthine oxidase is another enzyme that converts nitrate to nitric oxide (NO).

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What is Angiotensin I?

Angiotensin I is a precursor hormone that is converted to angiotensin II by the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).

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What is Angiotensin II?

Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor that causes blood vessels to narrow, increasing blood pressure.

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What is ACE?

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) is an enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II.

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What are AT1 receptors?

AT1 receptors are found on blood vessels and the adrenal glands. When activated by angiotensin II, they cause vasoconstriction and stimulate aldosterone release, respectively.

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What is aldosterone?

Aldosterone is a hormone that acts on the kidneys to promote sodium and water reabsorption, leading to an increase in blood volume and pressure.

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How is arterial pressure determined?

Arterial pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral resistance. Cardiac output refers to the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute, while peripheral resistance refers to the opposition to blood flow through the blood vessels.

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What is Dopamine?

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that can have various effects on blood pressure depending on the dose and the type of receptor it interacts with.

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What happens when dopamine is given at high doses?

At high doses ("> 10 micrograms), dopamine acts on alpha and beta receptors, inducing vasoconstriction. This reduces blood pressure.

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What happens when dopamine is given at low doses?

At low doses, dopamine acts on D2 receptors, resulting in increased cAMP levels that promote vasorelaxation and inhibit the release of norepinephrine. This lowers blood pressure.

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How do nitrates work to lower blood pressure?

Nitrates are medications that are bioactivated to release nitric oxide, which is a potent vasodilator that helps lower blood pressure. They are often used to treat angina (chest pain) and hypertension.

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Nitrate activation at high doses

At high doses, nitrates are activated by CYP450 enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum. This activation results in the formation of inactive metabolites.

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Nitrate activation at low doses

At low doses, nitrates are bioactivated by aldehyde dehydrogenase in the mitochondria. This activation leads to the formation of nitrate, which then reacts with either mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase or xanthine oxidase.

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Nitric oxide formation

The activation of nitrates at low doses results in the conversion of nitrate to nitric oxide (NO).

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cGMP formation and effects

NO is further converted to cyclic GMP (cGMP), which relaxes smooth muscle and prevents platelet aggregation. This leads to vasodilation and reduced thrombosis.

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Dopamine at moderate doses

Dopamine acts on beta 1 receptors to increase cardiac contractility.

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Atenolol: A cardioselective beta blocker

Atenolol is a cardioselective beta blocker, meaning it primarily targets beta 1 receptors.

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Nitrates: Potent Vasodilators

Nitrates are potent vasodilators that work by increasing nitric oxide (NO) levels. NO relaxes smooth muscle, leading to vasodilation.

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Dopamine: A Multifunctional Neurotransmitter

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter with various effects, including increasing contractility and heart rate.

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Atenolol for Hypertension

Atenolol is used to treat hypertension by blocking beta 1 receptors in the heart. This reduces blood pressure.

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Nitrates for Angina

Nitrates are often used to treat angina, a condition characterized by chest pain due to reduced blood flow to the heart. They help dilate blood vessels and improve blood flow.

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What is the mechanism of action of bempedoic acid?

Bempedoic acid is a drug that inhibits ATP citrate lyase, an enzyme involved in cholesterol synthesis.

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How do beta blockers affect the heart?

Beta blockers decrease the rate and force of cardiac contraction by blocking beta receptors, leading to reduced myocardial oxygen demand.

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How do bile acid binding resins work?

Bile acid binding resins create complexes with bile acids, preventing their reabsorption in the gut and leading to increased excretion in the stool.

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What is the mechanism of action of bumetanide?

Bumetanide is a loop diuretic that inhibits the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter in the ascending loop of Henle, promoting sodium and water excretion.

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How do carbonic anhydrase inhibitors work?

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors prevent the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3) by inhibiting the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, leading to reduced bicarbonate and increased hydrogen ion excretion.

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What are the actions of carvedilol?

Carvedilol is a nonselective alpha and beta blocker that blocks both alpha and beta receptors, reducing the rate and force of cardiac contraction and dilating blood vessels.

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What is the mechanism of action of calcium channel blockers?

Calcium channel blockers are drugs that block the influx of calcium ions into cells, leading to vasodilation and reduced heart contractility.

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How is PPAR alpha activated at high doses?

At high doses, activation of PPAR alpha occurs via CYP450 in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

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Why are beta blockers contraindicated with calcium channel blockers?

Beta blockers should not be used in patients with calcium channel blockers because the combination can lead to bradycardia and hypotension.

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Why should beta blockers be avoided in patients with myocardial conduction defects?

Beta blockers should be avoided in patients with myocardial conduction defects because they can worsen these conditions.

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Dichlorphenamide

A carbonic anhydrase inhibitor used to treat glaucoma.

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Chlorthalidone

A thiazide diuretic used to treat hypertension.

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Chlorthiazide

A thiazide diuretic used to treat hypertension.

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Cholestyramine

A bile acid binding resin used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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Clevidipine

An ultra short acting L-type calcium channel blocker used to treat acute coronary syndrome.

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Clonidine

An alpha 2 agonist used to treat HTN crisis by constricting smooth muscle and decreasing heart rate.

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Colesevalam

A bile acid binding resin used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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Conivaptan

A V1a/V2 antagonist used to treat hyponatremia.

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Ethacrynic acid

A loop diuretic used to treat heart failure.

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Evinacumab

An ANGPTL3 inhibitor used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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Ezetimibe

A cholesterol absorption inhibitor used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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Furosemide

A loop diuretic used to treat edema.

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Fenofibrate

A fibric acid derivative used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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Empagliflozin

An SGLT2i used to treat type 2 diabetes and heart failure.

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Gemfibrozil

A fibric acid derivative used to treat hyperlipidemia.

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What are nitrates?

Nitrates are a type of medication that can be converted into nitric oxide (NO) by the body. NO is a powerful vasodilator, meaning it relaxes smooth muscle, resulting in wider blood vessels and lower blood pressure.

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Which enzymes convert nitrates into nitric oxide?

Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase and xanthine oxidase are two enzymes that can help convert nitrates into nitric oxide (NO) within the body.

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What is nitric oxide's role in the body?

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key signaling molecule that helps relax smooth muscle and prevent platelets from clumping together, ultimately contributing to lower blood pressure and reduced risk of blood clots.

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How does NO influence smooth muscle and platelets?

Nitric oxide (NO) is derived from the conversion of nitrates and is further converted into cGMP. This cGMP molecule is responsible for relaxing smooth muscle and preventing platelet aggregation, leading to lower blood pressure and reduced risk of clotting.

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How does nitrate activation vary with dosage?

Nitrates are activated by different enzymes depending on their dosage. At lower doses, they are activated by mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase, while at higher doses, they are primarily activated by CYP450 enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum.

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What are endothelin receptor antagonists?

Endothelin receptor antagonists are drugs that block the action of endothelin, a potent vasoconstrictor. They are commonly used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a serious condition that affects the blood vessels in the lungs.

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What are 'pril' medications like?

Pril medications belong to a class of drugs called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. They prevent the formation of angiotensin II, a powerful vasoconstrictor, by inhibiting the ACE enzyme. ACE inhibitors effectively lower blood pressure and are widely used in the management of hypertension and heart failure.

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What is Amlodipine?

Amlodipine is a calcium channel blocker belonging to the L-type category. It blocks calcium entry into smooth muscle cells, resulting in relaxation of blood vessels and reduction in the force of heart contraction. Amlodipine is used to treat high blood pressure and chest pain (angina).

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What is Angiotensinogen?

Angiotensinogen is a precursor protein that undergoes conversion to angiotensin I. This conversion is the initial step in the RAAS. Angiotensin I further transforms into the active angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor that plays a crucial role in regulating blood pressure.

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Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that, at moderate doses, works to increase cardiac contractility by stimulating beta 1 receptors.

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Atenolol

A cardioselective beta blocker that targets beta 1 receptors, reducing heart rate and blood pressure.

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Angiotensin II

A potent vasoconstrictor that raises blood pressure. Angiotensin II promotes sodium and water retention, further elevating blood pressure.

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Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE)

Enzymes that convert Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II. ACE inhibitors, such as Captopril, block this conversion, thus lowering blood pressure.

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Beta Blocker

A type of drug that blocks beta 1 receptors in the heart, which then decreases the rate and force of the heart's contraction.

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Bioactivation

The process by which a substance is changed into an active form in the body. An example is the conversion of nitrates into nitric oxide.

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Aldehyde Dehydrogenase

An enzyme responsible for converting nitrates into nitric oxide (NO) in the mitochondria. This activation occurs at low doses of nitrates.

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Inactivation

The process by which a substance is changed into its inactive form. An example is the conversion of nitrates into inactive metabolites at high doses.

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What is chlorthalidone?

A thiazide diuretic that increases urinary output by promoting sodium and water excretion.

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What are statins?

A drug that inhibits HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of cholesterol. It lowers cholesterol levels by reducing its production in the liver.

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What is cholestyramine?

A bile acid binding resin that interacts with bile acids in the intestines, preventing their reabsorption and leading to increased excretion in the stool.

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What is bumetanide?

A loop diuretic that inhibits the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter in the ascending loop of Henle. It increases sodium and water excretion, reducing fluid volume and blood pressure.

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What is carvedilol?

A non-selective alpha and beta blocker that blocks both alpha and beta receptors, reducing the rate and force of cardiac contraction and dilating blood vessels.

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What are carbonic anhydrase inhibitors?

A drug that inhibits the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, preventing the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3). This reduces bicarbonate reabsorption and increases hydrogen ion excretion, leading to diuresis.

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What are calcium channel blockers?

A drug that blocks the influx of calcium ions into cells, leading to vasodilation and reduced heart muscle contraction. They are commonly used to lower blood pressure and treat angina.

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What are beta blockers?

A type of drug that acts on the heart by decreasing the heart rate and the strength of contractions, resulting in a reduced workload for the heart. They are often used to treat high blood pressure and heart failure.

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What are 'pril' drugs?

A 'pril' medication is a type of drug that inhibits the enzyme ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme), preventing the formation of angiotensin II. They are commonly prescribed to lower blood pressure and treat heart failure.

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What are vasopressin receptor antagonists?

A drug that blocks the action of vasopressin (ADH), a hormone that promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys. It is used to treat hyponatremia (low sodium in the blood).

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What are dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers?

A drug that blocks the influx of calcium ions into the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels, leading to relaxation of the blood vessels and a decrease in blood pressure. They are commonly used to treat hypertension and chest pain (angina).

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What are alpha-2 receptor agonists?

A class of drugs that act on the sympathetic nervous system to reduce heart rate and blood pressure. They are commonly used to treat hypertension, anxiety, and heart failure.

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What are Angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs)?

Drugs that target AT1 receptors, preventing the binding of angiotensin II. They are commonly prescribed for managing high blood pressure and are effective in blocking the vasoconstricting and aldosterone-releasing effects of angiotensin II.

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What is Angiotensin I converted to, and by what enzyme?

Angiotensin I, a precursor hormone, is converted to Angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, by the enzyme Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE).

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How does Angiotensin II affect blood pressure?

Angiotensin II acts on AT1 receptors on blood vessels, causing vasoconstriction, and on the adrenal gland, stimulating aldosterone release. Aldosterone then acts on MR receptors to promote sodium and water reabsorption, increasing blood volume and pressure.

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What factors determine arterial pressure?

Arterial pressure is determined by the interplay of cardiac output, the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute, and peripheral resistance, the opposition to blood flow through the vessels.

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How are high-potency nitrates bioactivated, and what are their effects?

High-potency nitrates are bioactivated by aldehyde dehydrogenase in the mitochondria, converting nitrates to nitric oxide (NO). NO further converts to cGMP, which relaxes smooth muscle, preventing platelet aggregation and leading to vasodilation.

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What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) in blood pressure regulation?

Nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule that relaxes smooth muscle, preventing platelet aggregation, leading to lower blood pressure and reduced risk of blood clots.

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What are endothelin receptor antagonists, and what are they used for?

Endothelin receptor antagonists block the action of endothelin, a potent vasoconstrictor. They are used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a serious condition affecting the blood vessels in the lungs.

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