Physiology Final Exam Study Notes
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Questions and Answers

What is physiology?

The study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts.

List the levels of organization from atoms through organism.

Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

Define homeostasis.

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite changes in the internal and/or external environment.

What happens when homeostasis fails?

<p>Disease &amp; sickness occur when homeostasis is disturbed for prolonged periods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following are types of feedback mechanisms that help regulate physiological processes? (Select all that apply)

<p>Negative Feedback</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is negative feedback and give an example.

<p>A process that reverses a change to bring a system back to its set point. Helps maintain homeostasis. Ex: Regulation of body temperature. When body temperature rises, sweating is triggered to cool down the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is feedforward control and give an example.

<p>A process that anticipates changes in a system and activates mechanisms to prevent deviations before they happen. Ex: Salivation before eating, as the body anticipates food entering the digestive system and begins to prepare.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The body can be in osmotic equilibrium but electrical and chemical disequilibrium.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is osmotic equilibrium?

<p>The total concentration of solutes is the same on both sides of the cell membrane, ensuring no net movement of water (isotonic conditions).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is chemical disequilibrium?

<p>Different solutes (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl-) are unevenly distributed across the cell membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three types of transport across membranes?

<p>Simple diffusion, protein-mediated transport, and vesicular transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain simple diffusion.

<p>Passive; molecules move down their concentration gradient. Example: Oxygen and carbon dioxide crossing the lipid bilayer. No energy or proteins required.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain protein-mediated transport.

<p>Includes facilitated diffusion, active transport, and ion channels. Facilitated Diffusion: Passive; uses carrier proteins (e.g., glucose transporters). Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves molecules against their gradient (e.g., Na+/K+ pump). Channels: Allow specific ions to pass (e.g., voltage-gated Na+ channels).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain vesicular transport.

<p>Active; involves vesicles. Types: Exocytosis (e.g., neurotransmitter release), endocytosis (e.g., LDL uptake), and phagocytosis. Energy required for vesicle formation and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes how movement across a membrane occurs through ion channels?

<p>Passive movement of ions based on size and charge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes how movement across a membrane occurs through facilitated diffusion?

<p>Involves carrier proteins that bind to specific molecules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes how movement across a membrane occurs through active transport?

<p>Requires energy to move ions against their concentration gradient.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle that determines membrane potential?

<p>The permeability of ions and their concentration gradients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increased Na+ permeability have on membrane potential?

<p>Depolarizes the membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four major groups of cell surface receptors?

<p>Chemically gated (ligand-gated) ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, Receptor-Enzyme Complexes, and Integrin Receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe chemically gated (ligand-gated) ion channels.

<p>Open or close in response to ligand binding, altering ion flow (e.g., nicotinic acetylcholine receptors).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).

<p>Activate intracellular G proteins, leading to second messenger production (e.g., adrenergic receptors).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe receptor-enzyme complexes.

<p>Contain enzyme activity or are linked to enzymes (e.g., receptor tyrosine kinases like the insulin receptor).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe integrin receptors.

<p>Bind to extracellular matrix proteins and mediate changes in the cytoskeleton (e.g., integrins in cell adhesion).</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a principle that applies to receptor-ligand interactions?

<p>Diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by specificity in receptor-ligand interactions?

<p>Receptors bind specific ligands based on shape and chemical compatibility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by competition in receptor-ligand interactions?

<p>Different ligands can compete for the same receptor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by affinity in receptor-ligand interactions?

<p>The strength of ligand-receptor binding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by saturation in receptor-ligand interactions?

<p>At high ligand concentrations, all receptors are occupied, and the response reaches a maximum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the seven steps of a reflex control pathway, in order?

<p>Stimulus, Sensor, Input Signal, Integrating Center, Output Signal, Target (Effector), Response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a stimulus in a reflex arc?

<p>A change in the environment that is detected.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a sensor in a reflex arc?

<p>A receptor that senses the stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an input signal in a reflex arc?

<p>The signal travels to the integrating center via afferent pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an integrating center in a reflex arc?

<p>Processes the input and determines a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a target (effector) in a reflex arc?

<p>The cell or organ that carries out the response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the response in a reflex arc?

<p>The action taken to restore homeostasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a key difference between neural reflexes and endocrine reflexes?

<p>Location of the response</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is stimulus intensity coded in neural reflexes?

<p>Frequency of action potentials (increased).</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is stimulus intensity coded in endocrine reflexes?

<p>Hormone concentration (increased).</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the four criteria that make a chemical signal a hormone?

<ol> <li>Secreted by a Cell or Group of Cells</li> <li>Transported in the Blood</li> <li>Bind to Specific Receptors</li> <li>Exert Effects at Low Concentrations</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a hormone that is not released by exocytosis?

<p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following receptors are typically located on the cell surface?

<p>Peptide hormone receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following receptors are typically located in the cytoplasm or nucleus?

<p>Steroid hormone receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a main group of amine hormones?

<p>Steroid hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way that the nervous system integrates with the endocrine system?

<p>Direct neuronal connections to target organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

List the six anterior pituitary hormones and their primary targets.

<ol> <li>Prolactin (PRL): Mammary glands</li> <li>Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Thyroid gland</li> <li>Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Adrenal cortex</li> <li>Growth Hormone (GH): Liver and other tissues</li> <li>Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Gonads</li> <li>Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Gonads</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of hormonal interaction?

<p>Homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by permissiveness in hormonal interactions?

<p>One hormone enables another's full effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by synergism in hormonal interactions?

<p>Two hormones together produce a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by antagonism in hormonal interactions?

<p>Two hormones have opposing effects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common type of endocrine pathology?

<p>Hypersensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how negative feedback can be used to determine the location of a problem within a two or three-gland pathway.

<p>If hormone levels are high at the final gland but low at earlier levels, the problem is likely in the anterior pituitary or hypothalamus. If all hormone levels are low, the issue may lie in the hypothalamus. If only the final gland hormone is low, the problem is likely in the target gland.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Physiology Final Exam - Study Notes

  • Chapter 1:

    • Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of a living organism and its parts.
    • Levels of organization range from atoms to organisms (Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism)
    • Homeostasis is maintaining a relatively stable internal environment, despite outside changes. Failure leads to disease and sickness.
    • Homeostasis is a dynamic steady state, not equilibrium (processes constantly change to maintain a balance)
    • Compare negative, positive, and feedforward feedback loops (give examples)

  • Chapter 5:

    • Osmotic equilibrium: Total solute concentration is equal on both sides of the cell membrane (isotonic conditions), avoiding net water movement
    • Chemical disequilibrium: Different solutes (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl−) unevenly distributed across the cell membrane (higher concentration of some solutes inside or outside)
    • Electrical disequilibrium: Ions contribute to charge differences across the membrane, creating a resting membrane potential. The value of the resting membrane potential (typically ~-70 mV) is maintained by ion channels and pumps. Sodium-Potassium Pump
    • Compare simple diffusion, protein-mediated transport, and vesicular transport across membranes.

  • Chapter 6:

    • Local communication:

  • Gap junctions: Direct cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells for ions/small molecules to pass (e.g., muscle cells).

  • Contact-dependent signals: Cell-to-cell contact between cells required (e.g., adhesion molecules).

  • Diffusing chemicals (paracrine signaling): A chemical signal released by a cell, affecting nearby cells (e.g., inflammation processes).

    • Long-distance communication:

  • Blood transport (endocrine system): Hormones released into the bloodstream act on distant targets (e.g., insulin regulating glucose levels).

  • Neurochemicals (nervous system):

  • Neurotransmitters: chemicals secreted by neurons across a small gap to target cells.

  • Neuromodulators: Modulate other neurons.

  • Neurohormones: chemicals released by neurons into the blood for action on distant targets.

  • Chapter 6 & 7:

    • Chemical signaling (hormones):

  • Made in cells, get transported in blood, bind to receptors on specific cells, and produce changes at a low concentration.

  • Peptide hormones: Synthesized in advance, stored in vesicles and released by exocytosis, rapid responses. (e.g., insulin)

  • Steroid hormones: Synthesized on demand, not stored, diffuse across membranes, slower, longer-lasting effects. (e.g., testosterone)

  • Chapter 9:

    • Cerebrospinal fluid: Cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord.
    • Blood-brain barrier: Protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood.
    • Structure and functions of the brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brain stem)
    • Lobes of the cerebral cortex (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital), sensory, motor, and association areas.

  • Chapter 10:

    • Signal transduction: Receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical signals using the following terms: transduction, threshold, adequate stimulus, receptive field, receptor potential.
    • How central nervous systems determine stimulus modality, location, intensity, and duration
    • Receptors adapting to stimuli (tonic and phasic receptors)
    • Nociceptors: Receptors for pain and itch

  • Chapter 11:

    • Adrenal medulla: Structure, hormones. (e.g., norepinephrine, epinephrine)
    • Neuromuscular junction: Structure of the neuro-muscular junction.
    • Compare and contrast somatic motor, sympathetic, and parasympathetic divisions (Anatomy, neurotransmitters, receptors)

  • Chapter 12:

    • Excitation-contraction coupling: Molecular events of excitation-contraction coupling & the contractile cycle
    • How muscle length affects force of contraction
    • Motor units and graded contractions
    • Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation

  • Chapter 13:

    • Ways of classifying neural reflex pathways

  • Chapter 14:

    • Myocardial excitation-contraction (EC) coupling: Membrane proteins, ion movement
    • Myocardial cell action potentials: (autorhythmic, contractile)
    • Factors affecting stroke volume (venous return, length-tension, preload, afterload, contractility.
    • Role of ANS in heart rate control

  • Chapter 15:

    • Blood pressure: mechanisms of it, resistance of system to flow, Poiseulle's law.
    • Factors affecting resistance, contributions to blood pressure (cardiac output and peripheral resistance)
    • Myogenic autoregulation: influence on local blood flow
    • Local and long-distance control of blood flow
    • Baroreceptor reflex: Stimulus, sensor, input, integrating center, output, cellular, tissue and systemic responses. (chemical signal molecules, receptors, feedback loops). Capillary filtration, absorption.

  • Chapter 16:

    • Plasma composition, plasma proteins function
    • Blood cellular elements
    • Hematopoiesis
    • Platelets (production, structure, function)
    • Hemostasis, coagulation and fibrinolysis

  • Chapter 17:

    • Respiratory System functions
    • Lung volumes, capacities
    • Pressure changes (affecting airflow), sub-atmospheric intrapleural pressure
    • Compliance, elastance in respiratory physiology
    • Role of surface tension, surfactants in respiratory physiology
    • Airway resistance and local control (including reflex control and bronchodilation, bronchoconstriction)
    • Compare and contrast total pulmonary ventilation and alveolar ventilation
    • Local control mechanisms for matching ventilation and alveolar blood flow

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BIOL 385 Learning Outcomes - Final Exam - Fall 2024 PDF

Description

Prepare for your Physiology final exam with these comprehensive study notes covering key topics from Chapter 1 and Chapter 5. Understand the levels of organization, homeostasis, and the concepts of osmotic, chemical, and electrical equilibrium. This quiz will help reinforce your knowledge of physiological principles essential for success.

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