Physics Chapter on Motion and Energy

Definition: Study of motion without considering forces.
Key Equations:
- ( v = u + at )
- ( s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2 )
- ( v^2 = u^2 + 2as )
Types of Motion:
- Uniform (constant speed)
- Non-uniform (variable speed)

Newton's First Law: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
Newton's Second Law: ( F = ma ) (Force equals mass times acceleration).
Newton's Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Work Done: ( W = Fd \cos(\theta) )
Kinetic Energy: ( KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 )
Potential Energy: ( PE = mgh )
Conservation of Energy: Total mechanical energy remains constant in the absence of non-conservative forces.

Reflection and Refraction: Snell's law ( n_1 \sin(\theta_1) = n_2 \sin(\theta_2) )
Lenses and Mirrors: Focal length and image formation.
Optical Instruments: Microscopes and telescopes.

Definition: The study of motion without considering the forces causing it.
Key Equations:
- Velocity: ( v = u + at ) (final velocity, initial velocity, acceleration, time)
- Displacement: ( s = ut + \frac{1}{2}at^2 ) (displacement, initial velocity, acceleration, time)
- Velocity-Displacement: ( v^2 = u^2 + 2as ) (final velocity, initial velocity, acceleration, displacement)
Types of Motion:
- Uniform: Constant speed and direction.
- Non-uniform: Changing speed or direction.

Newton's First Law (Inertia): Objects at rest stay at rest, and objects in motion stay in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by a net external force.
Newton's Second Law: ( F = ma ) (Force equals mass times acceleration). This describes the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration.
Newton's Third Law: For every action (force), there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Work Done: ( W = Fd \cos(\theta) ) (Force, displacement, angle between force and displacement). Work is done when a force causes displacement.
Kinetic Energy: ( KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 ) (Mass, velocity). Energy of motion.
Potential Energy: ( PE = mgh ) (Mass, gravity, height). Stored energy due to an object's position.
Conservation of Energy: Total mechanical energy (KE + PE) remains constant in the absence of non-conservative forces like friction.

Centre of Mass: The point where the total mass of a system is thought to be concentrated.
Moment of Inertia: ( I = \sum m r^2 ) (mass, distance from axis of rotation). Resistance to rotational motion.
Torque: ( \tau = r \times F ) (force, distance from the axis of rotation). Rotational force.

Universal Law of Gravitation: ( F = G\frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2} ) (Gravitational constant, mass of object 1, mass of object 2, distance between their centers). This describes the force of attraction between two objects with mass.
Gravitational Potential Energy: ( U = -G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r} ) (Gravitational constant, mass of object 1, mass of object 2, distance between their centers). Potential energy due to the gravitational force between two objects.
Motion of Planets: Explained by Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

Mechanical Properties: How materials respond to applied forces. Concepts include stress, strain, elastic limit, and Young's modulus.
Thermal Properties: How materials respond to changes in temperature. Concepts include heat capacity, specific heat capacity, latent heat, thermal conductivity, and convection.
Fluid Mechanics: The study of fluids (liquids and gases). Concepts include pressure, buoyancy, viscosity, Bernoulli's equation, and the continuity equation.

First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.
Second Law: The entropy (measure of disorder) of an isolated system always increases over time.
Heat Engines: Devices that convert thermal energy into mechanical energy. Key concepts include efficiency and the Carnot cycle (most efficient theoretical heat engine).

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A type of periodic motion where the restoring force is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. ( x(t) = A \cos(\omega t + \phi) ) (amplitude, angular frequency, time, phase).
Wave Properties: Key concepts include frequency, wavelength, amplitude, speed, and period.
Types of Waves:
- Transverse: Displacement is perpendicular to the wave's direction of motion (e.g., light waves).
- Longitudinal: Displacement is parallel to the wave's direction of motion (e.g., sound waves).

Reflection and Refraction:
- Reflection: Bouncing of light off a surface.
- Refraction: Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. Snell's law: ( n_1 \sin(\theta_1) = n_2 \sin(\theta_2) ) (refractive indices, angles of incidence and refraction).
Lenses and Mirrors: Use refraction or reflection to focus or diverge light. Key concepts include focal length, image formation, magnification.
Optical Instruments:
- Microscopes: Use lenses to magnify small objects.
- Telescopes: Use mirrors or lenses to collect and focus light from distant objects.

Quantum Theory: Light behaves like both a wave and a particle (photon). ( E = hf ) (energy of photon, Planck's constant, frequency).
Radioactivity: The spontaneous decay of unstable atomic nuclei. Types: alpha, beta, gamma.
Nuclear Reactions: Involve changes in the nucleus of an atom.
- Fission: Splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei.
- Fusion: Combining of lighter nuclei into a heavier nucleus.

Basics: Methods for transmitting information.
- Wired: Data travels through physical cables (e.g., telephone lines, Ethernet).
- Wireless: Data travels through electromagnetic waves (e.g., radio waves, microwaves).
Components:
- Transmitter: Converts information into a signal.
- Receiver: Converts the signal back into information.
- Channel: Medium through which the signal travels.
Modulation: Modifying a carrier wave (e.g., radio waves) to encode information.
- AM (Amplitude Modulation): Amplitude of carrier wave varies.
- FM (Frequency Modulation): Frequency of carrier wave varies.
Applications:
- Telecommunication Technologies: Telephone, internet, cellular networks.
- Satellites: Used for communication, navigation, and weather forecasting.