Photography: Aperture, Focal Length, and Shutter Speed

• Aperture is the lens opening controlling light amount to the sensor and affecting depth of field (DOF).
• A larger aperture (smaller f-stop number) increases light and creates a shallower DOF.
• A smaller aperture (larger f-stop number) decreases light and creates a greater DOF.

Focal Length

• Focal length is the distance between the lens's optical center and sensor when focused at infinity, measured in mm.
• Shorter focal lengths (wide-angle lenses) yield a wider field of view.
• Longer focal lengths (telephoto lenses) yield a narrower field of view with greater magnification.

F-stop (Aperture Setting)

• F-stop numerically represents aperture size, expressed as f/number (e.g., f/2, f/8, f/16).
• Lower f-numbers (e.g., f/2) mean a wider aperture, increasing light, and creating shallower DOF.
• Higher f-numbers (e.g., f/16) mean a narrower aperture, decreasing light, and creating greater DOF.

Shutter Speed

• Shutter speed is the duration the camera sensor is exposed to light, measured in seconds or fractions.
• Faster shutter speeds freeze motion.
• Slower shutter speeds blur motion.

ISO

• ISO measures the camera's light sensitivity.
• Lower ISO values (e.g., ISO 100) are less sensitive, producing cleaner images but needing more light.
• Higher ISO values (e.g., ISO 3200) are more sensitive, good for low light, but may add noise (grain).

Depth of Field (DOF)

• DOF is the image area appearing in sharp focus.
• DOF is controlled by aperture, focal length, and subject distance.
• Shallow DOF isolates the subject.
• Deep DOF keeps both foreground and background in focus.

Camera Obscura

• Camera obscura is a darkened room/box with a small hole projecting an inverted image, which demonstrates the principle of image formation by light.
• A digital camera's sensor acts like a camera obscura screen.

Telephoto Lens vs. Wide-Angle Lens

• A telephoto lens has a long focal length, compresses perspective, narrows the field of view, and magnifies distant objects.
• It is often used for portraits, wildlife, and sports.
• A wide-angle lens has a short focal length, exaggerates perspective, widens the field of view, and makes objects appear smaller.
• It is often used for landscapes, architecture, and environmental portraits.

72 DPI vs. 300 DPI

• DPI (Dots Per Inch) measures print resolution.
• 72 DPI is suitable for screens.
• 300 DPI is recommended for high-quality printing.
• Printing at 72 DPI results in blurry images.

Rule of Thirds

• The rule of thirds is a compositional guideline suggesting key elements be placed along imaginary lines dividing the image into thirds, creating balance and visual appeal.

Golden Section Rectangle

• A golden section rectangle has proportions based on the golden ratio (approximately 1:1.618).
• The ratio is considered aesthetically pleasing for harmonious compositions.
• The golden spiral, derived from the golden rectangle, guides element placement.

RAW vs. JPEG

• RAW is an uncompressed image file containing all sensor data.
• RAW allows more post-processing flexibility with larger file sizes.
• JPEG is a compressed image file that discards data to reduce file size.
• JPEG is less flexible in post-processing but convenient for sharing.

Collage, Photomontage, and Compositing 19th-Century Precursors

• Techniques like photograms (images without a camera), solarization (reversing tones), and combination printing (combining negatives) paved the way for photomontage.

Photomontage

• Photomontage combines multiple photographs for artistic expression, political commentary, or advertising.

Berlin Dadaists vs. Russian Constructivists

Berlin Dadaists (Hoch, Heartfield)

• Displayed disruptive, satirical, anti-establishment styles with jarring juxtapositions and fragmented imagery to critique society.

Russian Constructivists (Rodchenko, Klutsis)

• Used geometric, abstract, propagandistic styles with geometric forms and bold colors to promote revolutionary ideals.

Photoshop Blending Modes

• Blending modes alter layer interaction, changing color combinations.
• Multiply darkens the underlying layer, useful for shadows.
• Screen lightens the underlying layer, useful for highlights.

Masks vs. Selecting and Deleting

• Photoshop masks allow non-destructive editing, easily reversible.
• Deleting sections of images is permanent.

Pelle Cass vs. Martha Rosler

• Cass creates surreal and dreamlike photomontages.
• Rosler's photomontage work is political and critiques social issues.

Design Principles Part 1

• Vector graphics use formulas to define shapes, scalable without quality loss, for logos and illustrations (e.g., SVG).
• Bitmap graphics (raster graphics) use a pixel grid, lose quality when scaled, for photos (e.g., JPEG, PNG, TIFF).

Four Primary Principles of Graphic Design

• Unity: wholeness or coherence. Achieved via repetition, proximity, similarity, and continuation.
• Proportion: relative size and scale of elements, creates harmony.
• Hierarchy: visual order and element importance. Guides the viewer's eye.
• Variety: diverse elements; creates visual interest and avoids monotony.

Supporting Principles

• Scale: element size relative to other elements.
• Balance: distribution of visual weight (symmetrical, approximate symmetry, asymmetrical).
• Rhythm: element repetition creates movement.
• Repetition: creates unity.
• Economy: using essential elements.
• Proximity: grouping related elements (Gestalt principle).

Gestalt Principles

• Proximity: close elements seen as a group.
• Closure: mind completion of incomplete shapes.

Balance

• Symmetry: mirrored elements.
• Approximate Symmetry: similar elements.
• Asymmetrical Balance: uses weight, color, etc. Visual weight, color intensity, and size balances elements.

Line Quality

• Line quality refers to thickness, texture, conveys mood and emotion.
• Horizontal lines suggest calmness and stability.
• Vertical lines suggest strength, power.
• Diagonal lines suggest movement, energy.

Surrealism

• Surrealism explores the unconscious mind, irrationality, and dreams with bizarre juxtapositions.

Art Nouveau

• Art Nouveau uses flowing lines, organic forms, and nature-inspired motifs.

Design Principles Part 2

• Geometric shapes are mathematically defined (circles, squares).
• Organic shapes are irregular, free-flowing, and natural.
• Plakastil designs are bold, minimal, and emphasized contrast.

Negative and Positive Space

• Positive space is the main subject.
• Negative space surrounds the positive space, creating balance.
• Integrated space occurs when both spaces unify.

Posters in Visual Communication

• Posters are used for advertising and social commentary, Post-WWII Puerto Rican posters feature vibrant colors and national identity.

Typography

• Typography is the arrangement of type for legibility.
• Kerning adjusts space between letters.
• Tracking adjusts space between all letters.
• Leading adjusts space between lines.
• Type classifications include serif, sans-serif, script, and decorative types.

Modernism vs. Post-Modernism

Modernism

• Features clean, functional, minimalist styles and form follows function.

Post-Modernism

• Features eclectic, playful, ironic styles and form follows style.

Photoshop Fundamentals

• The Marquee tool selects shapes like rectangles.
• The Magic Wand selects similar colors.
• The Magnetic Lasso snaps to edges.
• The Lasso gives freehand selection.
• The Quick Selection Tool selects areas based on color.

Scaling and Rotating

• Use Free Transform (Ctrl/Cmd+T).
• Hold Shift to keep aspect ratio.
• Click center to scale from the center.

.PSD vs. .JPG

• .PSD (Photoshop Document) is a native format that preserves layers.
• .JPG (JPEG) is a compressed format that discards data.

Image Resolution

• Image resolution is the number of pixels, which is crucial for print/display.