Philosophy of Science: Kuhn's Paradigm

They reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims.

A shared set of assumptions that lay down the broad outlines of a theory.

They are likely to be punished, but during a scientific revolution, scientists become open to radically new ideas.

All knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is socially constructed.

Communism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organised scepticism.

They permit scientists to make new observations and construct new facts.

Trying to interpret the world and extract meaning from the evidence.

An open belief system allows for questioning and criticism, whereas a closed belief system does not permit challenges or revisions.

They believe that misfortune is due to witchcraft.

It provides a set of norms that guide scientists' behavior and promote the growth of scientific knowledge.

They believe that scientific knowledge serves the interests of the patriarchy and the ruling class.

Universalism holds that the truth of scientific knowledge is judged by universal standards.

It is a meta-narrative that falsely claims to possess the truth about how the world works.

Disinterestedness requires scientists to publish their findings for others to verify and critique.

The ideological domination of society by the ruling class.

When the working class follows the ruling class ideology while using their own exploitation to create their individualistic ideas.

They argue that economic factors, such as unemployment, rather than ideology, are the primary factors maintaining social order.

It is an important ideology that shapes political and social relations.

as false consciousness, allowing communication within large-scale impersonal communities with complex divisions of labor where all citizens are relatively equal

Ideological thought (reflecting the position and interests of privileged groups) and Utopian thought (reflecting the position and interests of the underprivileged)

detaching intellectuals from the social groups they represent and creating a free-flowing intelligentsia, free from representing the interests of this or that group

imposing a single standard language on every member, making economic and social cooperation easier through the equality of its members

the one-sided worldview of belief systems, reflecting the position and interests of a particular group or class

Ideological thought favors hierarchy and conservative views, while Utopian thought offers a vision of how society could be organized differently, reflecting the interests of the underprivileged

Substantive definitions focus on the substance of religion (e.g., belief in God), functional definitions emphasize the social and psychological functions of religion, and constructionist definitions focus on how members of society define religion themselves.

Durkheim defines religion in terms of its contribution to social integration, whereas Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural being that cannot be explained scientifically. Durkheim's definition is more inclusive and functional, while Weber's definition is more focused on the substantive aspects of religion.

The constructionist view emphasizes how members of society define religion themselves, without assuming a belief in God or the supernatural, or that it performs a specific function for society. This challenges traditional understandings by highlighting the diverse and subjective nature of religious beliefs and practices.

Scientology is considered a religion by its members, but is viewed as a cult by the government, highlighting the difficulties of creating a universal definition of religion that captures the diversity of beliefs and practices.

The different definitions of religion highlight the complexities and diversity of religious beliefs and practices, and underscore the importance of considering the social and cultural contexts in which they emerge.

The different definitions of religion reflect assumptions about the substance, function, and nature of religion, and implications for understanding the role of religion in society, including its relationship to social integration, beliefs, and practices.