Philosophy of Science: Kuhn's Paradigm

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How does Polanyi argue that belief systems, including science, respond to fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims?

They reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims.

What does Kuhn mean by a paradigm in mature sciences such as geology, biology, and physics?

A shared set of assumptions that lay down the broad outlines of a theory.

What happens to scientists who disregard the dominant paradigm in normal science, and what changes during a scientific revolution?

They are likely to be punished, but during a scientific revolution, scientists become open to radically new ideas.

What is the central argument of interpretivist sociologists regarding the nature of knowledge?

All knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is socially constructed. Signup and view all the answers

What are the four norms that scientist Robert Merton argues are necessary for the advancement of scientific knowledge?

Communism, universalism, disinterestedness, and organised scepticism. Signup and view all the answers

How do new instruments, such as telescopes or microscopes, contribute to the construction of new scientific facts according to Knorr-Cetina?

They permit scientists to make new observations and construct new facts. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary activity that scientists engage in, according to Woolgar, when confronted with evidence from their observations?

Trying to interpret the world and extract meaning from the evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between an open and a closed belief system?

An open belief system allows for questioning and criticism, whereas a closed belief system does not permit challenges or revisions. Signup and view all the answers

How do the Azande people explain misfortune, according to Horton?

They believe that misfortune is due to witchcraft. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 'ethos' in scientific research, according to Merton?

It provides a set of norms that guide scientists' behavior and promote the growth of scientific knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

What do Marxist and feminist thinkers believe about the role of scientific knowledge in serving the interests of dominant groups?

They believe that scientific knowledge serves the interests of the patriarchy and the ruling class. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of universalism relate to scientific knowledge?

Universalism holds that the truth of scientific knowledge is judged by universal standards. Signup and view all the answers

According to Lyotard, what is the nature of scientific knowledge?

It is a meta-narrative that falsely claims to possess the truth about how the world works. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of disinterestedness in scientific research, according to Merton's norms?

Disinterestedness requires scientists to publish their findings for others to verify and critique. Signup and view all the answers

What is Gramsci's concept of hegemony?

The ideological domination of society by the ruling class. Signup and view all the answers

What is the dual consciousness, according to Gramsci?

When the working class follows the ruling class ideology while using their own exploitation to create their individualistic ideas. Signup and view all the answers

What is the critique of Abercrombie et al. (2015) regarding the role of ideology in maintaining social order?

They argue that economic factors, such as unemployment, rather than ideology, are the primary factors maintaining social order. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of nationalism as a political ideology?

It is an important ideology that shapes political and social relations. Signup and view all the answers

How does Gellner (2006) view nationalism in modern societies?

as false consciousness, allowing communication within large-scale impersonal communities with complex divisions of labor where all citizens are relatively equal Signup and view all the answers

What are the two broad types of belief systems according to Mannheim (1929)?

Ideological thought (reflecting the position and interests of privileged groups) and Utopian thought (reflecting the position and interests of the underprivileged) Signup and view all the answers

What is the solution proposed by Mannheim to address the limitations of belief systems?

detaching intellectuals from the social groups they represent and creating a free-flowing intelligentsia, free from representing the interests of this or that group Signup and view all the answers

What role does education play in nationalism, according to Gellner?

imposing a single standard language on every member, making economic and social cooperation easier through the equality of its members Signup and view all the answers

What is the central concern of Mannheim's analysis of belief systems?

the one-sided worldview of belief systems, reflecting the position and interests of a particular group or class Signup and view all the answers

How do Mannheim's Ideological and Utopian thought systems differ in their views of social organization?

Ideological thought favors hierarchy and conservative views, while Utopian thought offers a vision of how society could be organized differently, reflecting the interests of the underprivileged Signup and view all the answers

What are the three ways sociologists define religion, and how do they differ from one another?

Substantive definitions focus on the substance of religion (e.g., belief in God), functional definitions emphasize the social and psychological functions of religion, and constructionist definitions focus on how members of society define religion themselves. Signup and view all the answers

How does Durkheim's definition of religion differ from Weber's, and what are the implications of these differences?

Durkheim defines religion in terms of its contribution to social integration, whereas Weber defines religion as a belief in a superior or supernatural being that cannot be explained scientifically. Durkheim's definition is more inclusive and functional, while Weber's definition is more focused on the substantive aspects of religion. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the constructionist view of religion, and how does it challenge traditional understandings of religion?

The constructionist view emphasizes how members of society define religion themselves, without assuming a belief in God or the supernatural, or that it performs a specific function for society. This challenges traditional understandings by highlighting the diverse and subjective nature of religious beliefs and practices. Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of scientology, as discussed by Aldridge, illustrate the complexities of defining religion?

Scientology is considered a religion by its members, but is viewed as a cult by the government, highlighting the difficulties of creating a universal definition of religion that captures the diversity of beliefs and practices. Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of the different ways sociologists define religion for our understanding of religious beliefs and practices?

The different definitions of religion highlight the complexities and diversity of religious beliefs and practices, and underscore the importance of considering the social and cultural contexts in which they emerge. Signup and view all the answers

How do the different ways sociologists define religion reflect underlying assumptions about the role and nature of religion in society?

The different definitions of religion reflect assumptions about the substance, function, and nature of religion, and implications for understanding the role of religion in society, including its relationship to social integration, beliefs, and practices. Signup and view all the answers