UNIT 2 - Chapter 7 - Short Answers Study

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Philosophy

• Rousseau believed that human nature is inherently good.
• He advocated for a society where individuals subordinate their personal will to the general will.
• The best education occurs when it is individualized, recognizing a student's natural abilities and curiosity.

Rousseau's Views on Human Conduct

• He distrusted reason, organized religion, science, and societal laws as guides for human conduct.
• Rousseau believed that a person's honest feelings and inclinations are the best guide for human behavior.
• He claimed that the first impulses of human nature are always right, and there is no original sin in the human heart.

The Concept of the Noble Savage

• Rousseau believed that if a noble savage (a human unaffected by society) could be found, it would demonstrate a human whose behavior is governed by feelings, but not selfish.

Human Nature and Social Harmony

• Rousseau believed that humans are, by nature, social animals who wish to live in harmony with others.
• If humans are allowed to develop freely, they will become happy, fulfilled, free, and socially minded.
• They will do what is best for themselves and others if given the freedom to do so.

The General Will and Private Will

• Rousseau introduced the concept of the general will, which describes what is best for the community.
• The general will is distinct from an individual's will or a unanimous agreement among individuals.
• Each individual has both a private will (selfish tendencies) and a general will (tendencies to act for the community's benefit).
• To live in harmony with others, individuals must act in accordance with their general will and inhibit their private will.

Rousseau's Educational Philosophy

• Education should take advantage of natural impulses rather than distort them.
• Education should not consist of structured schooling, but rather create a situation where a child's natural abilities and interests can be nurtured.
• Rousseau believed that children have a rich array of positive instincts, and the best education allows these impulses to become actualized.

Goethe's Philosophy on Human Nature

• Believed that human life is characterized by choices between opposing forces, such as love and hate, life and death, and good and evil.
• Viewed humans as being torn by the stresses and conflicts of life.
• Advocated that the goal of life should be to embrace these opposing forces rather than to deny them.
• Encouraged living life with passion and aspiring continuously for personal growth.

Phenomenology and Influence on Psychology

• Coined the term "phenomenology" to refer to the study of meaningful whole experiences as the proper unit of analysis when studying human nature.
• Had a significant influence on the development of psychology, particularly on the theories of Jung and Freud.
• Both Jung and Freud's theories emphasize the conflicting forces operating in one's life, focusing on conflict, frustration, and perpetual struggle between animal impulses and civilized behavior.
• Inspired the idea that animalistic urges should not be totally eliminated but instead harnessed and used to enhance personal growth, a concept present in both Jung and Freud's theories.

Schopenhauer's Philosophy

• Schopenhauer believed that the will to survive is the most powerful human motive, driving individuals to constantly seek need satisfaction to postpone death.

Human Behavior and the Will

• According to Schopenhauer, the powerful drive toward self-preservation, rather than intellect or morality, accounts for most human behavior.
• The will to survive manifests as an unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction, which cannot be fully satiated.

Suffering and Awareness

• Schopenhauer believed that suffering varies with awareness, with intelligent beings suffering the most.
• Highly intelligent people often seek solitude, while common people tend to be gregarious.
• Humans cling to life not because it is pleasant but because they fear death.

Rising Above Irrational Forces

• With great effort, humans can attempt to rise above their irrational forces and approach nirvana, a state characterized by freedom from irrational strivings.
• Schopenhauer anticipated Freud's concept of sublimation, suggesting that engaging in non-need-related activities (e.g., poetry, art, music) can provide relief from irrational forces.

Counteracting Irrational Forces

• Living a life of asceticism can help counteract irrational forces, particularly the sex drive.
• Schopenhauer believed that suicide is a mistake, as it evades the noble effort to struggle against and rise above these forces.

Human Nature and the Unconscious

• Schopenhauer observed that humans have both positive (intellectual, rational) and negative (animalistic) impulses.
• He noted that consciousness is only the surface of our minds, with the unconscious mind remaining unknown, like the interior of the globe.

Kierkegaard's Views on Religion

• Kierkegaard believed that religion had become too rational and mechanical, and that a relationship with God should be an intensely personal and emotional experience, like a love affair.
• He believed that taking the existence of God on faith makes God a living truth for a person, and thus, truth is subjectivity.
• Kierkegaard rejected the state's control and protection of Lutheranism, which he believed discouraged the intensely individual nature of the religious experience.

Critique of Hegel's Philosophy

• Kierkegaard rejected Hegel's philosophy because it placed too much emphasis on the logical and rational side of human experience and not enough on the emotional side.

Views on Science

• Kierkegaard rejected science as too mechanistic, believing it prevented humans from being viewed as choosing beings.

Leap of Faith

• Kierkegaard believed that believing in God is a "leap of faith," a choosing to believe in the absence of any factual, objective information.
• God, who is unlimited and eternal, cannot be explained, understood, or proved logically and must be taken on faith.

Personal Freedom

• Kierkegaard proposed a stage theory of personal freedom, with three stages: aesthetic, ethical, and religious.
• The aesthetic stage is characterized by hedonism and a lack of recognition of personal freedom to choose.
• The ethical stage is characterized by acceptance of responsibility and adherence to established moral principles.
• The religious stage is characterized by recognition and acceptance of personal responsibility and a unique, personal relationship with God.

Friedrich Nietzsche's Philosophy

• Humans can no longer rely on religious superstition or metaphysical speculation for guidance, but must determine life's meaning for themselves.
• Exercising one's "will to power" enables continuous growth and self-overcoming, beyond conventional morality.

Apollonian and Dionysian Aspects of Human Nature

• The Apollonian aspect represents rationality, desire for tranquility, predictability, and orderliness.
• The Dionysian aspect represents the irrational side, attraction to creative chaos, and passionate experiences.
• The best art and literature reflect a fusion of these two tendencies, with controlled passion.

Comparison with Freudian Psychology

• Both Nietzsche and Freud aimed to help individuals control their powerful, irrational impulses for a more creative, healthy life.
• The tension between Apollonian and Dionysian tendencies is central to Nietzsche's psychology, similar to Freud's primary and secondary processes.

Existentialism and the Death of God

• With the "death of God," traditional sources of meaning and morality disappeared, leaving humans responsible for creating their own meaning.
• There are no abstract truths, only individual perspectives, and even philosophies are personal confessions of their authors.

Will to Power and the Superman

• The will to power is the driving force behind life, seeking to become stronger, master, and more.
• The "superman" is one who experiments with life and feelings, engaging in continuous self-overcoming, with passion, courage, and insight.

Critique of Conventional Views

• Nietzsche rejected traditional sources of authority, including religion, science, and metaphysics, advocating for individuality and self-responsibility.
• He believed that repressive civilization is the primary cause of human mental anguish, similar to Freud's views.