UNIT 2 - Chapter 7 - Short Answers Study

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Questions and Answers

What is Rousseau's belief about human nature?

Rousseau believed that human nature is basically good.

How does Rousseau think education should be conducted?

Rousseau thinks education should be individualized and recognize a student's natural abilities and curiosity.

What does Rousseau distrust in guiding human conduct?

Rousseau distrusts reason, organized religion, science, and societal laws as guides for human conduct.

What is Rousseau's view on the general will?

Rousseau believes the general will describes what is best for the community, and it is distinct from individual will or unanimous agreement. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the private will and the general will, according to Rousseau?

The private will represents individual selfishness, while the general will represents what is best for the community. Signup and view all the answers

What is Rousseau's view on human behavior in a natural state?

Rousseau believes that a noble savage, untouched by society, would behave in a way governed by feelings, but not selfishly. Signup and view all the answers

What is Rousseau's understanding of human nature in relation to society?

Rousseau believes humans are social animals who wish to live in harmony with others, and if left to develop freely, they would become happy, fulfilled, free, and socially minded. Signup and view all the answers

What is Rousseau's view on individual freedom in civilized societies?

Rousseau believes that to live in civilized societies, humans must give up some of their primitive independence. Signup and view all the answers

What is the central theme of Goethe's philosophy regarding human nature?

That life is characterized by choices between opposing forces and that much about humans is forever beyond scientific understanding. Signup and view all the answers

According to Goethe, what is the goal of life?

To live life with passion and continually aspire for personal growth. Signup and view all the answers

What concept in Goethe's philosophy refers to the idea that meaningful whole experiences are the proper unit of analysis when studying human nature?

Phenomenology. Signup and view all the answers

How do the theories of Freud and Jung reflect Goethe's ideas?

Both theories emphasize the conflicting forces operating in one's life, focusing on conflict, frustration, and perpetual struggle between animal impulses and civilized behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is the common approach of Freud, Jung, and Goethe towards animalistic urges in human nature?

They believe that animalistic urges should not be totally eliminated but instead harnessed and used to enhance personal growth. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Goethe's influence on the development of psychology?

His ideas have had a significant influence on the development of psychology, shaping the theories of psychologists such as Freud and Jung. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary motive that drives human behavior, according to Schopenhauer?

The will to survive Signup and view all the answers

What does Schopenhauer equate with the noumenal world?

Will, a blind, aimless force Signup and view all the answers

Why do humans cling to life, according to Schopenhauer?

Because they fear death Signup and view all the answers

What is the state characterized by freedom from irrational strivings, according to Schopenhauer?

Nirvana Signup and view all the answers

What activities can provide relief or escape from irrational forces, according to Schopenhauer?

Activities such as poetry, theatre, art, music, Platonic philosophy, or unselfish, nonsexual, sympathetic love Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between the noumenal and phenomenal, according to Schopenhauer?

The noumenal is the powerful, aimless will, and the phenomenal is consciousness Signup and view all the answers

Why do highly intelligent people seek solitude, according to Schopenhauer?

Because suffering varies with awareness Signup and view all the answers

What is the alternative to immersing oneself in non-need-related activities, according to Schopenhauer?

Living a life of asceticism Signup and view all the answers

What is the common thread between the Bible and a love letter in terms of their meaning?

The meaning of both is found in the feelings they evoke in the reader. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of people in the aesthetic stage, according to Kierkegaard?

They seek out pleasure and excitement, and do not recognize their ability to choose among enticements. Signup and view all the answers

What is the distinction between the ethical and religious stages, according to Kierkegaard?

In the ethical stage, people follow established moral principles, whereas in the religious stage, they have a personal relationship with God, guided by their self-awareness. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of individuals who operate on the aesthetic level, according to Kierkegaard?

Their existence ultimately leads to boredom and despair. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key aspect of personal freedom, according to Kierkegaard?

Recognizing and accepting one's responsibility to choose one's path in life. Signup and view all the answers

How does Kierkegaard's religious stage differ from the ethical stage?

In the religious stage, individuals have a personal relationship with God, whereas in the ethical stage, they follow established moral principles. Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of conformity to general moral laws, according to Kierkegaard?

Individuals may miss out on unique possibilities in life that run contrary to what is generally accepted. Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining feature of truth, according to Kierkegaard?

Truth is subjective, defined by individual feelings and interpretation. Signup and view all the answers

What was Søren Kierkegaard's criticism of the state's system of promoting Lutheranism?

Kierkegaard believed that the state's system of promoting Lutheranism discouraged the individual nature of the religious experience. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Kierkegaard reject Hegel's philosophy?

Kierkegaard rejected Hegel's philosophy because it placed too much emphasis on the logical and rational side of human experience and not enough on the emotional side. Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'leap of faith' according to Kierkegaard?

The 'leap of faith' is a choosing to believe in God without needing a logical, rational, or scientific explanation of why or how the decision was determined. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Kierkegaard think that science was too mechanistic?

Kierkegaard thought that science was too mechanistic because it prevented us from viewing humans as choosing beings. Signup and view all the answers

What is the ultimate state of being for Kierkegaard?

The ultimate state of being for Kierkegaard is when the individual decides to embrace God and take God's existence on faith without needing a logical, rational, or scientific explanation. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Kierkegaard believe that spiritual truth cannot be taught by logical argument?

Kierkegaard believed that spiritual truth cannot be taught by logical argument because truth must be experienced. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the emotional experience in Kierkegaard's philosophy?

The emotional experience is significant in Kierkegaard's philosophy because it is a key aspect of the intensely personal and highly emotional experience of a relationship with God. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Kierkegaard reject the idea that God can be explained or proven logically?

Kierkegaard rejected the idea that God can be explained or proven logically because God is unlimited and eternal, and therefore cannot be understood or explained by human logic. Signup and view all the answers

What are the key characteristics that differentiate the 'superman' from the 'nonsuperman', according to Nietzsche?

passion, courage, and insight Signup and view all the answers

What is the common philosophical approach shared by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche?

reliance on direct, personal experience and rejection of conventional authority Signup and view all the answers

What is the central message of existentialism as a philosophy?

individuals should take responsibility for their own thinking and decisions Signup and view all the answers

Why did Nietzsche reject Hegelian philosophy?

it was a conventional authority Signup and view all the answers

What was Freud's opinion of Nietzsche's self-awareness?

Nietzsche had a more penetrating knowledge of himself than any other person Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 'leap of faith' in existentialist philosophy?

it represents the individual's responsibility to make choices without external authority Signup and view all the answers

What does Nietzsche claim humans must do to determine life's meaning, according to his philosophy?

Determine life's meaning for themselves by exercising their will to power. Signup and view all the answers

What is the term Nietzsche used to describe those who experimented with life and feelings and engaged in continuous self-overcoming?

Superman. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two major aspects of human nature, according to Nietzsche's philosophy?

The Apollonian and the Dionysian aspects. Signup and view all the answers

What did Nietzsche believe was the result of Western philosophy's emphasis on the intellect and minimization of human passions?

Lifeless rationalism. Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of Nietzsche's psychology, in relation to the Apollonian and Dionysian tendencies?

To help individuals gain control of their powerful, irrational impulses in order to live more creative, healthy lives. Signup and view all the answers

What term did Nietzsche use to describe the barbarian, irrational urges that must be modified by Apollonian rationality?

Das es, or the id. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of allowing Dionysian impulses to express themselves without Apollonian rationality, according to Nietzsche?

Destruction of the individual. Signup and view all the answers

What is the key to living a fulfilling life, according to Nietzsche's philosophy?

Living with passion, through the controlled expression of Dionysian impulses. Signup and view all the answers

How did Nietzsche and Freud explain the content of dreams and works of art?

Through the concept of sublimation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of the 'death of God' in Nietzsche's philosophy?

The absence of traditional sources of meaning and morality, leaving humans to create their own values and principles. Signup and view all the answers

According to Nietzsche, what is the fundamental drive of all living beings?

The will to power, or the desire to become stronger and more powerful. Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between convictions and truth, according to Nietzsche?

Convictions are more dangerous enemies of truth than lies, as they reflect certainty rather than probability. Signup and view all the answers

What is the nature of reality, according to Nietzsche?

A 'cosmic tabula rasa' where individuals must create their own values and meaning. Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'good life' in Nietzsche's philosophy?

A life of self-overcoming, creativity, and risk-taking, characterized by a willingness to challenge oneself and strive for excellence. Signup and view all the answers

How did Nietzsche's philosophy influence the German National Socialists (Nazis)?

The Nazis misinterpreted and distorted Nietzsche's concept of the 'superman', applying it to their own ideology of racial superiority. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of individual perspectives in Nietzsche's philosophy?

Individual perspectives are the only reality, and there are no abstract truths waiting to be discovered. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of artists in Nietzsche's philosophy?

Artists are responsible for creating their own unique values and meanings, and are a model for how individuals should approach life. Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of Nietzsche's philosophy for traditional morality and values?

Traditional morality and values are rejected in favor of individual creativity and self-overcoming. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Philosophy

Rousseau believed that human nature is inherently good.
He advocated for a society where individuals subordinate their personal will to the general will.
The best education occurs when it is individualized, recognizing a student's natural abilities and curiosity.

Rousseau's Views on Human Conduct

He distrusted reason, organized religion, science, and societal laws as guides for human conduct.
Rousseau believed that a person's honest feelings and inclinations are the best guide for human behavior.
He claimed that the first impulses of human nature are always right, and there is no original sin in the human heart.

The Concept of the Noble Savage

Rousseau believed that if a noble savage (a human unaffected by society) could be found, it would demonstrate a human whose behavior is governed by feelings, but not selfish.

Rousseau believed that humans are, by nature, social animals who wish to live in harmony with others.
If humans are allowed to develop freely, they will become happy, fulfilled, free, and socially minded.
They will do what is best for themselves and others if given the freedom to do so.

The General Will and Private Will

Rousseau introduced the concept of the general will, which describes what is best for the community.
The general will is distinct from an individual's will or a unanimous agreement among individuals.
Each individual has both a private will (selfish tendencies) and a general will (tendencies to act for the community's benefit).
To live in harmony with others, individuals must act in accordance with their general will and inhibit their private will.

Rousseau's Educational Philosophy

Education should take advantage of natural impulses rather than distort them.
Education should not consist of structured schooling, but rather create a situation where a child's natural abilities and interests can be nurtured.
Rousseau believed that children have a rich array of positive instincts, and the best education allows these impulses to become actualized.

Goethe's Philosophy on Human Nature

Believed that human life is characterized by choices between opposing forces, such as love and hate, life and death, and good and evil.
Viewed humans as being torn by the stresses and conflicts of life.
Advocated that the goal of life should be to embrace these opposing forces rather than to deny them.
Encouraged living life with passion and aspiring continuously for personal growth.

Phenomenology and Influence on Psychology

Coined the term "phenomenology" to refer to the study of meaningful whole experiences as the proper unit of analysis when studying human nature.
Had a significant influence on the development of psychology, particularly on the theories of Jung and Freud.
Both Jung and Freud's theories emphasize the conflicting forces operating in one's life, focusing on conflict, frustration, and perpetual struggle between animal impulses and civilized behavior.
Inspired the idea that animalistic urges should not be totally eliminated but instead harnessed and used to enhance personal growth, a concept present in both Jung and Freud's theories.

Schopenhauer's Philosophy

Schopenhauer believed that the will to survive is the most powerful human motive, driving individuals to constantly seek need satisfaction to postpone death.

Human Behavior and the Will

According to Schopenhauer, the powerful drive toward self-preservation, rather than intellect or morality, accounts for most human behavior.
The will to survive manifests as an unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction, which cannot be fully satiated.

Suffering and Awareness

Schopenhauer believed that suffering varies with awareness, with intelligent beings suffering the most.
Highly intelligent people often seek solitude, while common people tend to be gregarious.
Humans cling to life not because it is pleasant but because they fear death.

Rising Above Irrational Forces

With great effort, humans can attempt to rise above their irrational forces and approach nirvana, a state characterized by freedom from irrational strivings.
Schopenhauer anticipated Freud's concept of sublimation, suggesting that engaging in non-need-related activities (e.g., poetry, art, music) can provide relief from irrational forces.

Counteracting Irrational Forces

Living a life of asceticism can help counteract irrational forces, particularly the sex drive.
Schopenhauer believed that suicide is a mistake, as it evades the noble effort to struggle against and rise above these forces.

Human Nature and the Unconscious

Schopenhauer observed that humans have both positive (intellectual, rational) and negative (animalistic) impulses.
He noted that consciousness is only the surface of our minds, with the unconscious mind remaining unknown, like the interior of the globe.

Kierkegaard's Views on Religion

Kierkegaard believed that religion had become too rational and mechanical, and that a relationship with God should be an intensely personal and emotional experience, like a love affair.
He believed that taking the existence of God on faith makes God a living truth for a person, and thus, truth is subjectivity.
Kierkegaard rejected the state's control and protection of Lutheranism, which he believed discouraged the intensely individual nature of the religious experience.

Critique of Hegel's Philosophy

Kierkegaard rejected Hegel's philosophy because it placed too much emphasis on the logical and rational side of human experience and not enough on the emotional side.

Views on Science

Kierkegaard rejected science as too mechanistic, believing it prevented humans from being viewed as choosing beings.

Leap of Faith

Kierkegaard believed that believing in God is a "leap of faith," a choosing to believe in the absence of any factual, objective information.
God, who is unlimited and eternal, cannot be explained, understood, or proved logically and must be taken on faith.

Personal Freedom

Kierkegaard proposed a stage theory of personal freedom, with three stages: aesthetic, ethical, and religious.
The aesthetic stage is characterized by hedonism and a lack of recognition of personal freedom to choose.
The ethical stage is characterized by acceptance of responsibility and adherence to established moral principles.
The religious stage is characterized by recognition and acceptance of personal responsibility and a unique, personal relationship with God.

Friedrich Nietzsche's Philosophy

Humans can no longer rely on religious superstition or metaphysical speculation for guidance, but must determine life's meaning for themselves.
Exercising one's "will to power" enables continuous growth and self-overcoming, beyond conventional morality.

Apollonian and Dionysian Aspects of Human Nature

The Apollonian aspect represents rationality, desire for tranquility, predictability, and orderliness.
The Dionysian aspect represents the irrational side, attraction to creative chaos, and passionate experiences.
The best art and literature reflect a fusion of these two tendencies, with controlled passion.

Comparison with Freudian Psychology

Both Nietzsche and Freud aimed to help individuals control their powerful, irrational impulses for a more creative, healthy life.
The tension between Apollonian and Dionysian tendencies is central to Nietzsche's psychology, similar to Freud's primary and secondary processes.

Existentialism and the Death of God

With the "death of God," traditional sources of meaning and morality disappeared, leaving humans responsible for creating their own meaning.
There are no abstract truths, only individual perspectives, and even philosophies are personal confessions of their authors.

Will to Power and the Superman

The will to power is the driving force behind life, seeking to become stronger, master, and more.
The "superman" is one who experiments with life and feelings, engaging in continuous self-overcoming, with passion, courage, and insight.

Critique of Conventional Views

Nietzsche rejected traditional sources of authority, including religion, science, and metaphysics, advocating for individuality and self-responsibility.
He believed that repressive civilization is the primary cause of human mental anguish, similar to Freud's views.

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Short answer study questions for UNIT TWO Chapter 7