Philosophy of Free Will
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following are positions on free will?

  • Compatibalism (correct)
  • Determinism (correct)
  • Libertarianism (correct)

    • What does Libertarianism propose?

    We are free to act in ways other than we actually do

    What is Determinism?

    Everything flows from cause and effect sequences (Environment + Biology)

    What is Compatibalism?

    <p>Determinism does not rule out free will</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some reasons to believe in free will?

    <p>Introspection / Our subjective experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main limitation of introspection?

    <p>Subjective Measures Problem: may be subject to biases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are types of Physicalism?

    <p>Identity Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of Behaviorism?

    <p>Behavior &amp; Environment focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key idea of Identity Theory?

    <p>An identity relationship. Only mental process is a specific brain process. Mental State A --&gt; Brain State A. Ex: water H2O. Brain Focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central concept of Computational Theory?

    <p>Function is important. Things are not defined by specific structure but rather by the function. The same mental processes can be done differently. Information processing focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main strategies in hypothesis testing?

    <p>Confirmation / Positive test strategy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central principle of Falsification and Scientific Theories?

    <p>Scientific theories must be specified such that they can be falsified</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main concepts discussed in the eReading: Otgaar, H., Howe, M.L. & Pathis, L. (2022)?

    <p>The Memory Wars: The Recovered Memory Controversy. Repressed Memory. Recovered Memory. Widely viewed as fact by the general public.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Repressed memory is the complete absence of memory from conscious awareness.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Recovered memory refers to the process of a previously repressed memory returning to conscious awareness.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Repression according to Freudian Defense Mechanisms?

    <p>Reduce anxiety by distorting reality. Special mechanism for forgetting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are components of the Modal Model of Memory?

    <p>Sensory Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main categories of LTM Lapses?

    <p>Forgetting and Failure to Retrieve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Forgetting (Transience/Decay)?

    <p>Not available, transience/decay</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Failure to Retrieve?

    <p>Blocking - tip of the tongue experience, retrieval cues missing (but its available), no special mechanism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these are types of real-world relevant data?

    <p>Verified cases of forgotten abuse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are possible explanations for Recovered Memories?

    <p>False memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are possible explanations for Verified Cases of Forgotten Abuse?

    <p>Transience (memory decay)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are False Memories?

    <p>memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of relevant lab data?

    <p>memories are 'constructions'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Eye-Witness Testimony demonstrate about memory fallibility?

    <p>eye witness testimony is not very helpful</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are Reinterpreted Memories?

    <p>via supplied retrieval cues that aided recall of a real episode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Forget-it-all-along effect?

    <p>The claim that various biases sometimes cause individuals to overestimate the degree to which they had previously forgotten an experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between Statistical Significance and Effect Size?

    <p>Statistical Significance does not necessitate any 'meaningful' differences for every-day practical considerations. Effect size gets at that issue (Cohen's d)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the main factors considered when explaining Biological Sex Differences?

    <p>Socio-Cultural Forces (Nurture)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A common view is that Biology = 0 when explaining sex differences.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive abilities tend to be better in girls?

    <p>Perceptual speed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between Achievement Measures vs. Aptitude Measures?

    <p>Achievement: What have you learned? Ex: ACT. Aptitude: predict future academic performance Ex: Mcat, GRE, LSAT</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Differences in cognitive ability are the primary explanation for the observed differences between males and females, not interests.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe Natural Experiments involving Biological Males raised as Females

    <p>Cloacal Extrophy. John-Joan Case (Dr. John Money &amp; David Reimer).</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be expected if Biology > 0 when explaining sex differences?

    <p>Universality in data patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some observed brain structure differences between males and females?

    <p>Males: higher % of white matter and proportionately less grey matter, greater laterization (e.g., higher % of grey matter in left hemisphere). Females: larger corpus callosum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the Nature via Nurture complication illustrated by the London Cab Study

    <p>Different experiences also shape brain differences. London Cab Study: extensive training significantly enlarged sections of hippocampus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the limitations of focusing on early differences when examining sex differences?

    <p>Biological processes operate on time-lines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia?

    <p>Females who have excess prenatal exposure to androgens: higher masculine toy prefs, more competitive &amp; less cooperative play behavior, lowered verbal ability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are possible explanations for the dramatic discrepancies between males and females at the elite university Math & Science Departments?

    <p>Differences in personal values / preferences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which are the levels of Explanation/Analysis in the Biopsychosocial Model?

    <p>Person/Psychological Level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which are two intellectual tools?

    <p>Bayesian Reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Bayesian Reasoning?

    <p>Baserates (prior probability), Baserate Neglect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Expected Utility / Rational Choice Theory?

    <p>Utility can be subjective. Generate the elements, note U for each element, Note P of attaining element, do EU calculation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Chapter 10 (Rationality by Pinker) likely discuss?

    <p>Rationality and its impact on human decision-making, behavior, and interaction with the world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the differences between Folk usage of Bias vs. mere descriptive usage of Bias?

    <p>Folk Usage: 'common sense'. Descriptive usage: simply describing a bias, not necessarily bad or good. Egocentric Bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is belief bias?

    <p>Evaluating the strength/validity of a conclusion on the basis of believability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Motivated Bias?

    <p>Desires --&gt; Reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the key components of Critical Thinking / Rationality?

    <p>Content Knowledge (domain specific knowledge)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is Rationality Important?

    <p>Rationality is crucial for effective decision-making, problem-solving, and navigating our complex world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Free Will Positions

    • Positions on free will include determinism, libertarianism, and compatibilism.

    Libertarianism

    • Libertarianism posits that individuals are free to choose actions different from what actually occurs.

    Determinism

    • Determinism argues that all actions arise from a sequence of causes and effects, influenced by both environment and biology.

    Compatibilism

    • Compatibilism suggests that determinism doesn't negate free will.

    Reasons for Believing in Free Will

    • Introspection and subjective experience of conscious will correlating with behavior are reasons to believe in free will.

    Limitations of Introspection

    • Subjective measures in introspection can be biased.

    Types of Physicalism

    • Behaviorism, identity theory, and computational theory are types of physicalism.

    Behaviorism

    • Behaviorism focuses on behavior and the environment.

    Identity Theory

    • Identity theory posits a direct correspondence between mental processes and specific brain processes, akin to the relationship between water (H₂O) and its chemical composition.

    Computational Theory

    • Computational theory emphasizes function over structure, asserting that mental processes, regardless of the specific implementation, can be described in terms of information processing.

    Hypothesis Testing

    • A key aspect of scientific methodology, testing hypotheses often proceeds via confirmation or positive test strategies, or falsification or negative test strategies, with hypotheses being falsifiable but not confirmable.

    Falsification and Scientific Theories

    • Scientific theories must be designed to be potentially disproven to be deemed scientific.

    Memory Wars - Recovered Memory Controversy

    • Repressed memory and recovered memory are notions with strong public acceptance even though controversy surrounds their validity.

    Repressed Memory (RpM)

    • Repressed memories are recollections entirely absent from conscious awareness.

    Recovered Memory (RcM)

    • Recovered memories involve a previously repressed memory returning to conscious awareness.

    Freudian Defense Mechanisms

    • Repression is a Freudian defense mechanism, a way individuals distort reality to reduce anxiety, considered a special mechanism for forgetting.
    • The modal model of memory encompasses sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

    LTM Lapses - Forgetting

    • Forgetting can occur due to transience/decay or failure to retrieve information.

    Failure to Retrieve

    • Forgetting can also stem from blocking (tip-of-the-tongue experiences) or missing retrieval cues.

    Real World Relevant Data

    • Verified instances of forgotten abuse and cases of proven false recovered memories suggest potential issues with recovered memories.

    Explaining Recovered Memories

    • Possible explanations include actual repression or false memories.

    Verified Cases of Forgotten Abuse

    • Repression, lack of willingness to discuss, or memory decay can explain these cases.

    False Memories

    • False memories are recollections for events that never occurred but were suggested by others or through circumstances.

    Relevant Lab Data Regarding Memory

    • Research demonstrates that memory is a reconstructive process that can be distorted by leading questions, suggestions, or imagining. False memory implantation is a risk for approximately 20% of people.

    Eye-witness Testimony & Memory

    • Eye-witness testimony is often unreliable, due to memory's fallibility.

    Reinterpreted Memories

    • Reinterpreted memories are those retrieved via cues that help recall a real event.

    Forget-It-All-Along Effect

    • People sometimes overestimate the degree of forgetting an episode they had experienced.

    Statistical Significance vs. Effect Size

    • Statistical significance does not always indicate practical significance. Effect size (like Cohen's d) clarifies the magnitude of any observed difference.

    Explaining Biological Sex Differences

    • Explanations for sex differences can include biological, social-cultural, and/or other factors (e.g., bias).

    Biology = 0?

    • The idea that biological factors are not important in shaping differences is not uncommon.

    Cognitive Ability Differences

    • Girls often outperform boys in certain cognitive areas, such as calculation, speed, and verbal fluency, whereas boys sometimes show higher abilities in visual-spatial and mathematical areas.

    Achievement Measures vs. Aptitude Measures

    • Achievement tests gauge current knowledge/skill, while aptitude tests aim to predict future academic performance.

    Differences in Cognitive Ability or Interests?

    • Males have often exhibited greater interest in math and science than females.

    Natural Experiments - Biological Males Raised as Females

    • Extreme cases, like the cloacal extrophy individuals or the John-Joan case, illustrate the influence of nature and nurture on development.

    If Biology > 0

    • There would be uniformity of patterns, stability over time, and the existence of plausible biological mechanisms.

    Brain Structure Differences?

    • Males tend to exhibit greater white matter, less gray matter, and more lateralization. Females often have a larger corpus callosum.

    Nature via Nurture

    • Experiences reshape the brain, demonstrated in the London cab driver study, which showed hippocampal structural differences associated with extensive training.

    Limitations of Early Differences Analysis

    • Biological processes occur on time-lines, leading to changes.

    Hormones

    • Hormones may contribute to sex differences but there's more research to be done.

    Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

    • Females with higher prenatal androgen exposure sometimes have preferences for toys and show more competitive behavior, and lower verbal ability.

    Explaining Dramatic Discrepancies in Math/Science Departments

    • Biases, values, preferences, statistical considerations around small effect sizes, or variance differences between the genders are often contributing factors.

    Biopsychosocial Model

    • This model considers the biological, psychological, and social factors that interact and influence a person.

    Two Intellectual Tools for Rational Choice

    • Bayesian reasoning and expected utility theory help address beliefs, evidence, and rational decisions.

    Bayesian Reasoning

    • Bayesian reasoning addresses prior probability (baserates) and the neglect of baserates.

    Expected Utility Theory

    • Subjective utilities for certain outcomes help inform decisions, by evaluating the expected utility of each element.

    Chapter 10 (Pinker)

    • Content Summary of Chapter 10 on rationality by Pinker needed

    Folk Bias vs Descriptive Bias

    • "Folk" biases are biases that are commonly known, while "Descriptive" are simply a description of the bias with no good or bad implications.

    Assignment 8 Reading Pennycook (2020)

    • "Belief bias"

    Motivated Bias

    • Motivated bias is a type of bias where desires affect and direct the process of reasoning.

    Myside Bias

    • Myside bias arises when someone's search interpretations or attempts to process evidence in a way that favors the desired belief.

    Belief Bias

    • Evaluating the strength or validity of a conclusion based on its believability

    Belief Change

    • Actively open-minded thinking correlates with changes in beliefs.

    Critical Thinking/Rationality Factors

    • Cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, intellectual tools, and domain-specific knowledge all play important roles in rationality.

    Importance of Rationality

    • A summary of the importance of rationality is needed.

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    Description

    Explore the various positions on free will, including determinism, libertarianism, and compatibilism. This quiz examines the implications and arguments surrounding these theories, as well as their relationships with concepts like physicalism and behaviorism.

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