Philosophy of Free Will

Free Will Positions

• Positions on free will include determinism, libertarianism, and compatibilism.

Libertarianism

• Libertarianism posits that individuals are free to choose actions different from what actually occurs.

Determinism

• Determinism argues that all actions arise from a sequence of causes and effects, influenced by both environment and biology.

Compatibilism

• Compatibilism suggests that determinism doesn't negate free will.

Reasons for Believing in Free Will

• Introspection and subjective experience of conscious will correlating with behavior are reasons to believe in free will.

Limitations of Introspection

• Subjective measures in introspection can be biased.

Types of Physicalism

• Behaviorism, identity theory, and computational theory are types of physicalism.

Behaviorism

• Behaviorism focuses on behavior and the environment.

Identity Theory

• Identity theory posits a direct correspondence between mental processes and specific brain processes, akin to the relationship between water (H₂O) and its chemical composition.

Computational Theory

• Computational theory emphasizes function over structure, asserting that mental processes, regardless of the specific implementation, can be described in terms of information processing.

Hypothesis Testing

• A key aspect of scientific methodology, testing hypotheses often proceeds via confirmation or positive test strategies, or falsification or negative test strategies, with hypotheses being falsifiable but not confirmable.

Falsification and Scientific Theories

• Scientific theories must be designed to be potentially disproven to be deemed scientific.

Memory Wars - Recovered Memory Controversy

• Repressed memory and recovered memory are notions with strong public acceptance even though controversy surrounds their validity.

Repressed Memory (RpM)

• Repressed memories are recollections entirely absent from conscious awareness.

Recovered Memory (RcM)

• Recovered memories involve a previously repressed memory returning to conscious awareness.

Freudian Defense Mechanisms

• Repression is a Freudian defense mechanism, a way individuals distort reality to reduce anxiety, considered a special mechanism for forgetting.

Modal Model of Memory

• The modal model of memory encompasses sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

LTM Lapses - Forgetting

• Forgetting can occur due to transience/decay or failure to retrieve information.

Failure to Retrieve

• Forgetting can also stem from blocking (tip-of-the-tongue experiences) or missing retrieval cues.

Real World Relevant Data

• Verified instances of forgotten abuse and cases of proven false recovered memories suggest potential issues with recovered memories.

Explaining Recovered Memories

• Possible explanations include actual repression or false memories.

Verified Cases of Forgotten Abuse

• Repression, lack of willingness to discuss, or memory decay can explain these cases.

False Memories

• False memories are recollections for events that never occurred but were suggested by others or through circumstances.

Relevant Lab Data Regarding Memory

• Research demonstrates that memory is a reconstructive process that can be distorted by leading questions, suggestions, or imagining. False memory implantation is a risk for approximately 20% of people.

Eye-witness Testimony & Memory

• Eye-witness testimony is often unreliable, due to memory's fallibility.

Reinterpreted Memories

• Reinterpreted memories are those retrieved via cues that help recall a real event.

Forget-It-All-Along Effect

• People sometimes overestimate the degree of forgetting an episode they had experienced.

Statistical Significance vs. Effect Size

• Statistical significance does not always indicate practical significance. Effect size (like Cohen's d) clarifies the magnitude of any observed difference.

Explaining Biological Sex Differences

• Explanations for sex differences can include biological, social-cultural, and/or other factors (e.g., bias).

Biology = 0?

• The idea that biological factors are not important in shaping differences is not uncommon.

Cognitive Ability Differences

• Girls often outperform boys in certain cognitive areas, such as calculation, speed, and verbal fluency, whereas boys sometimes show higher abilities in visual-spatial and mathematical areas.

Achievement Measures vs. Aptitude Measures

• Achievement tests gauge current knowledge/skill, while aptitude tests aim to predict future academic performance.

Differences in Cognitive Ability or Interests?

• Males have often exhibited greater interest in math and science than females.

Natural Experiments - Biological Males Raised as Females

• Extreme cases, like the cloacal extrophy individuals or the John-Joan case, illustrate the influence of nature and nurture on development.

If Biology > 0

• There would be uniformity of patterns, stability over time, and the existence of plausible biological mechanisms.

Brain Structure Differences?

• Males tend to exhibit greater white matter, less gray matter, and more lateralization. Females often have a larger corpus callosum.

Nature via Nurture

• Experiences reshape the brain, demonstrated in the London cab driver study, which showed hippocampal structural differences associated with extensive training.

Limitations of Early Differences Analysis

• Biological processes occur on time-lines, leading to changes.

Hormones

• Hormones may contribute to sex differences but there's more research to be done.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

• Females with higher prenatal androgen exposure sometimes have preferences for toys and show more competitive behavior, and lower verbal ability.

Explaining Dramatic Discrepancies in Math/Science Departments

• Biases, values, preferences, statistical considerations around small effect sizes, or variance differences between the genders are often contributing factors.

Biopsychosocial Model

• This model considers the biological, psychological, and social factors that interact and influence a person.

Two Intellectual Tools for Rational Choice

• Bayesian reasoning and expected utility theory help address beliefs, evidence, and rational decisions.

Bayesian Reasoning

• Bayesian reasoning addresses prior probability (baserates) and the neglect of baserates.

Expected Utility Theory

• Subjective utilities for certain outcomes help inform decisions, by evaluating the expected utility of each element.

Chapter 10 (Pinker)

• Content Summary of Chapter 10 on rationality by Pinker needed

Folk Bias vs Descriptive Bias

• "Folk" biases are biases that are commonly known, while "Descriptive" are simply a description of the bias with no good or bad implications.

Assignment 8 Reading Pennycook (2020)

• "Belief bias"

Motivated Bias

• Motivated bias is a type of bias where desires affect and direct the process of reasoning.

Myside Bias

• Myside bias arises when someone's search interpretations or attempts to process evidence in a way that favors the desired belief.

Belief Bias

• Evaluating the strength or validity of a conclusion based on its believability

Belief Change

• Actively open-minded thinking correlates with changes in beliefs.

Critical Thinking/Rationality Factors

• Cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, intellectual tools, and domain-specific knowledge all play important roles in rationality.

Importance of Rationality

• A summary of the importance of rationality is needed.

Explore the various positions on free will, including determinism, libertarianism, and compatibilism. This quiz examines the implications and arguments surrounding these theories, as well as their relationships with concepts like physicalism and behaviorism.