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What does contemporary platonism support regarding abstract objects?
What does contemporary platonism support regarding abstract objects?
Which philosopher is associated with the recovery of Platonic thought in a political context?
Which philosopher is associated with the recovery of Platonic thought in a political context?
What is Plato's view on the existence of Forms for mundane things, such as hair and mud?
What is Plato's view on the existence of Forms for mundane things, such as hair and mud?
What is a common belief among mathematicians that aligns with platonist thought?
What is a common belief among mathematicians that aligns with platonist thought?
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Which problem is named 'Plato's beard' by W.V.O. Quine?
Which problem is named 'Plato's beard' by W.V.O. Quine?
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Which term refers to the view that there are many abstract objects?
Which term refers to the view that there are many abstract objects?
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What does the phrase 'knowledge is justified true belief' imply?
What does the phrase 'knowledge is justified true belief' imply?
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How did medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophers influence Strauss's thought?
How did medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophers influence Strauss's thought?
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What is the main philosophical issue that Plato addresses?
What is the main philosophical issue that Plato addresses?
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What is the primary focus of Aristotle's immanent realism in relation to epistemology?
What is the primary focus of Aristotle's immanent realism in relation to epistemology?
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Which of the following best describes Plato's theory of Forms?
Which of the following best describes Plato's theory of Forms?
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How does Aristotle's approach to knowledge differ from Plato's?
How does Aristotle's approach to knowledge differ from Plato's?
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Who among the following was not directly mentioned as a significant influence on Plato?
Who among the following was not directly mentioned as a significant influence on Plato?
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What does Aristotle's concept of 'natural philosophy' encompass?
What does Aristotle's concept of 'natural philosophy' encompass?
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What are the 'twin pillars of Platonism' according to Francis Cornford?
What are the 'twin pillars of Platonism' according to Francis Cornford?
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Which of the following best summarizes Descartes' contribution to philosophy?
Which of the following best summarizes Descartes' contribution to philosophy?
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What is the significance of Plato's dialogues primarily featuring Socrates?
What is the significance of Plato's dialogues primarily featuring Socrates?
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What does Descartes mean by the phrase 'Cogito, ergo sum'?
What does Descartes mean by the phrase 'Cogito, ergo sum'?
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How has the reception of Plato's works changed over time?
How has the reception of Plato's works changed over time?
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What does the concept of Platonic love refer to?
What does the concept of Platonic love refer to?
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What type of sciences did Aristotle categorize under 'theoretical science'?
What type of sciences did Aristotle categorize under 'theoretical science'?
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What is the primary contention surrounding the theory of Forms?
What is the primary contention surrounding the theory of Forms?
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In Aristotle's classification, what does 'practical science' include?
In Aristotle's classification, what does 'practical science' include?
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What did Descartes challenge through his methodical doubt?
What did Descartes challenge through his methodical doubt?
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Study Notes
George Berkeley
- George Berkeley (1685-1753), known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland), advanced a theory called immaterialism (later referred to as subjective idealism).
- This theory denies the existence of material substance, arguing instead that familiar objects are ideas perceived by the mind.
- These objects cannot exist without being perceived.
- Berkeley is also known for his critique of abstraction and his argument for immaterialism.
- In 1709, he published An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, discussing the limitations of human vision and arguing that the objects of sight are not material objects but light and color.
- In 1710, he published A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, rewriting it in dialogue form as Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (1713).
- In this work, he presents his view through Philonous ("lover of mind"), while his opponents' views are represented by Hylas ("hyle", Greek for "matter"), particularly John Locke's views.
Contributions to philosophy
- According to Berkeley, there are only two kinds of things: spirits and ideas. Spirits are simple, active beings that produce and perceive ideas; ideas are passive beings produced and perceived by spirits.
Relativity arguments
- John Locke's theory of defining objects by primary and secondary qualities is extended by Berkeley; heat is an example of secondary quality
- Berkeley argues that size is not a quality of an object as it depends on the distance between the observer and the object or on the size, shape, or other features of the observer
- Similar arguments are applied to other primary qualities. If none of the qualities are a quality of the object, then there is nothing more than the qualities we observe.
Relativity arguments
- Relativity is the idea that there is no objective truth, as the existence of one independent object is entirely dependent on another
- Primary qualities (shape, size, etc.) are independent of the mind, while secondary qualities (colour, taste, etc.) are mind-dependent
- Berkeley refuted Locke's belief in primary and secondary qualities because they cannot be separated.
- Berkeley argues that our perception of objects depends on the relationship between the observer and the objects, and that our perceptions can be different even if the objects themselves remain the same.
- Consequently, both primary and secondary qualities are mind-dependent and cannot exist independently of the mind.
General practical result
- The analysis of physics allows for the elimination of essentialist explanations
- If an explanation has mathematical content it can be admitted but not if it does not.
- Berkeley's razor is sharper than Ockham's razor because all entities are ruled out except those which are perceived.
Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge
- Popper argues that Berkeley is an instrumentalist philosopher
- Scientific theories are meant to explain facts
- They are not intended to be true, as they are merely "serviceable fictions."
Marxism
- Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels were German philosophers, economists, political theorists, historians, sociologists, journalists, and revolutionary socialists.
- Their works include the Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894).
- Their critical approach, historical materialism, analyzes capitalism and has greatly influenced modern intellectual, economic, and political history.
- Marx's view of history, called historical materialism, focuses on the primacy of material forces over ideas in shaping history, with the class struggle as the main driving force.
Historical materialism
- Marx locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labor together to make their livelihoods.
- He views history as the evolution of modes of production and exchange, leading to societal division into classes and conflict between those classes
- Marx believed he could study history and society scientifically to understand trends and predict outcomes of social conflicts
Locke
- John Locke (1632-1704) was an English philosopher and physician.
- He is regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers and "father of liberalism."
- Locke argued against the concept of innate ideas, advocating that the mind is a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) at birth, and that knowledge is derived entirely from experience through sense perception
- He is a major figure in the development of epistemology and political philosophy
- Key works:
- An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
- Two Treatises of Government
Theory of mind
- Locke's theory of mind is considered as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, and is presented through a continuity of consciousness
- The mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth
- Knowledge is determined by experience derived from sense perceptions
- He distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities, emphasizing that secondary qualities (color, taste, etc.) are dependent on the perceiver, while primary qualities (shape, size, etc.) are independent.
Early life
- Locke was born in Wrington, Somerset, England.
- He attended Westminster School and later Christ Church, Oxford
- His father was a lawyer and his mother Agnes Keene.
Career
- Served as Ashley's personal physician and involved in politics
- Became Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords Proprietors of Carolina
- These roles helped shape his thinking about international trade and economics.
- Lived in the Netherlands between 1683 and 1688, due to political turmoil
- Returned to England after the Glorious Revolution and continued writing and meeting with important people, including Isaac Newton,
- Contributed greatly to the development of philosophical thought, especially to liberal theory
The Netherlands
- Fled England in 1683 due to political turmoil and went to the Netherlands
- Continued work on philosophy, and composed the Two Treatises of Government.
- Also worked on A Letter Concerning Toleration
Return to England
- Returned to England in 1688 after the Glorious Revolution
- His close friend and intellectual companion, Lady Masham, invited him to her country house, though he experienced asthma attacks during this time
- Continued writing, which resulted in the publication of several works in quick succession.
Death
- Locke died on 28 October 1704 in High Laver, Essex
Major works
- A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)
- A Second Letter Concerning Toleration (1690)
- A Third Letter for Toleration (1692)
- Two Treatises of Government (1689)
- Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693)
- An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
- The Reasonableness of Christianity as Delivered in the Scriptures (1695)
- The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695)
Philosophy
- Exercised a profound influence on political philosophy, particularly on modern liberalism
- The influence of his views on Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and Thomas Jefferson is evident in the writing of the United States Declaration of Independence.
Philosophy of knowledge
- Locke’s theory of knowledge is about the way we gain knowledge about the world; it is derived from experience and observations.
- His theory states that knowledge is ultimately justified through experience, meaning that people do not possess inherent ideas at birth
- Sense perception is the primary source of ideas and further considerations help to derive knowledge
- Reasoning and reflection on what is experienced provide additional sources of knowledge.
- He argues that knowledge is about the relationship between ideas derived from experience.
Primary and secondary qualities
- Locke defines qualities as either primary or secondary, with primary qualities belonging to things themselves (e.g., shape, size, and motion), and secondary qualities belonging to our perceptions of these things (e.g., colors and tastes).
- Secondary qualities are not properties of an object, but a result of our interactions with them
- Primary qualities are properties of an object themselves.
Personal identity
- Locke addresses the problem of what makes a person the same person over time.
- Discusses that personhood is distinct from body and mind.
- Contends that the continuity of consciousness or memory is crucial for personal identity
- Locke’s view emphasizes personal identity based on the continuity of consciousness and memory, rather than on the physical body or human being,
- The key criterion for personal identity is the uninterrupted awareness or memory of past experiences.
Association of ideas
- Locke observes how ideas become linked together in the mind.
- This linking is due to the repeated experience of these ideas occurring simultaneously or in close succession.
- These associations play a crucial role in reasoning and the formation of complex ideas.
- Associations lead to the development of habits, good or bad behaviour
- This is relevant to the educational theory
Language
- The project of analysing the meaning of terms, which involves identifying the related ideas.
- Focuses on how people use language to communicate ideas and meanings to others and understanding the ideas
- Analysis of meaning and the role of language
- Ideas become general through abstraction.
Knowledge
- Knowledge, for Locke, is about the relationship of ideas
- When an understanding of the relationship between two concepts is available in our grasp, then we can reasonably say that we have adequate understanding
- Experience through sense perception and reflection or reasoning.
- Limited by the fact that our understanding is based on our experiences, and interpretations are subject to our perceptions
The theory of Forms
- Plato's theory of Forms posits that the physical world is an imperfect shadow of a more perfect and unchanging realm of Forms, or Ideas.
- Forms are perfect and unchanging ideas, examples being beauty, justice, and particular knowledge
- Knowledge is not gained through sense perceptions, but through apprehension
- Physical objects and phenomena are flawed copies
The soul
- Plato believed the soul is immortal
- Plato's view of the soul: the soul rules the body and is what controls a person's body.
- Parts of the soul: Reason (head), spirit (top torso), and appetite (lower torso)
- There is a belief in the immortality of the soul
- The soul may reincarnate into other bodies.
- The soul is the ruling part of the human being, responsible for controlling the body and directing the individual's actions.
Dialectic
- Socrates employed a dialectic method by questioning to examine and test beliefs.
- This method involves asking questions to understand a topic better and expose contradictions in an interlocutor's beliefs.
- The aim of dialectic is to clarify concepts, determine contradictions, and explore the nature of truth through dialogue.
Legacy in philosophy
- Plato's philosophy influenced Western philosophy greatly, and was studied in medieval and Renaissance periods.
Analytic Philosophy
- Began around the turn of the 20th century
- A method using careful analysis to clarify concepts and issues.
- Important figures in the development: Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, as well as the logical positivists (particularly Rudolf Carnap), W.V.O. Quine, Karl Popper, Saul Kripke, and David Lewis among others.
- Importance in the Western world
Popper
- Sir Karl Popper (1902-1994), an Austrian-British philosopher of science
- He is known for his rejection of the inductive method and his emphasis on falsifiability.
- Popper criticized totalitarianism and defended liberal democracy.
The paradox of tolerance
- Unlimited tolerance must lead to the destruction of tolerance; those who are intolerant should be suppressed
- The idea that societies must not tolerate intolerance
- Incitement to intolerance, murder, kidnapping, and the revival of the slave trade are considered criminal
The Theory of Forms
- The theory of Forms, also known as the theory of Ideas, suggests that the physical world is not the only reality.
- Argues that there is a higher realm of Forms, which are perfect and unchanging ideas that are the true reality.
- The physical world is imperfect and constantly changing, and represents only a shadow of the Forms.
The Allegory of the Cave
- Plato’s allegory of the cave illustrates how people's perceptions can be limited and distorted by their experiences
- Emphasizes the importance of seeking truth beyond immediate sensory perception
- The allegory of the cave is an important metaphor about the nature of knowledge.
- Socrates argues that those who remain in the darkness of ignorance will not understand and appreciate the significance of true knowledge.
Deduction
- Deduction moves from the general to the particular and is often represented by syllogism
- A syllogism is a three-line argument that begins with two premises and ends with a conclusion
- If the premises are true, then the conclusion will also be true
Induction
- Induction moves from the particular to the general
- Observed patterns or repeated events used to make probable claims about the future.
- The truth of the conclusion is not guaranteed even if the premises are true
Abduction
- Abductive reasoning or inference to the best explanation moves from an effect to a possible cause
- This form of reasoning is about determining the most likely explanation for an event
- Its conclusion is never guaranteed, but it is important to consider the possible reason or cause for the event.
Socratic Method
- Method of questioning, a way to search for the truth
- Socrates used a style of questioning
- Used dialogues with others to expose contradictions
- Aims to clarify concepts, recognize inconsistencies, and reveal our own lack of knowledge.
Socratic Priority of Definition
- Socrates prioritized the quest for definitions to better understand concepts and solve philosophical problems
- Socrates's strategy involved establishing the meaning of specific terms to improve clarity and establish knowledge
Socratic Ignorance
- The idea that Socrates was aware of his ignorance
- It is argued that Socrates knew very little, and this is a way of teaching his students
- He recognized the limitations of human knowledge
- It is argued and debated whether he truly did or was pretending
Socratic Irony
- Socratic irony, an approach where a philosopher feigns ignorance to reveal contradictions in his interlocutors' beliefs
The Soul
- Plato believed that the soul is immortal and has three components
- Reason, spirit, and appetite
- The soul strives to achieve immortality
- The soul is located in various parts of the human body
- The soul is eternally seeking to know and to understand the Forms
Different kinds of knowledge
- Three kinds of knowledge
- Ability knowledge (how), Knowledge of acquaintance (of), and Factual/propositional knowledge (that)
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Description
Test your knowledge on contemporary Platonism and its views on abstract objects, Forms, and the influence of historical philosophers. Explore the implications of 'knowledge is justified true belief' and the political recovery of Platonic thought. This quiz covers various philosophical concepts and thinkers associated with Platonism.
