Philosophy Exam Review Notes

For people to think for themselves and develop their own philosophical positions based on well-reasoned arguments. To attempt to answer fundamental questions about life.

<p>It saw a renewed interest in diverse philosophical questions beyond ethics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Scientific discoveries influenced philosophers who emphasized material explanation and reason.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Voltaire (A), Immanuel Kant (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Karl Marx (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Philosophy is diverse and dynamic with intellectual innovation continuing to expand.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Inductive (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To draw a conclusion or make a generalization based on specific evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It involves making a best guess or explanation and testing it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a flaw or fault in logic that attempts to persuade without providing legitimate grounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They aimed to explain the universe with reason-based theories, and developed atomism, suggesting matter consists of invisible particles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He collected data from nature, using systemic observation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He proposed the geocentric theory, placing Earth at the center of the universe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He introduced the heliocentric theory, placing the Sun at the center of the universe, shifting from religious beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He established the scientific method of testing hypotheses through sensory evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He developed universal laws of motion, blending religious views and suggesting God set the universe in motion with purpose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Natural selection through evolution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He questioned whether scientific discoveries lead to nihilism or a sense of meaninglessness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Theories cannot be proven true, but can be tested and accepted tentatively if they withstand attempts to disprove.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Predicting future knowledge is impossible, and scientists may introduce new paradigms to understand the universe in radically different ways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are practical tools for organizing natural phenomena rather than true descriptions of reality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Scientific statements must either be true by definition or verifiable by evidence presented.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reality consists of ideal forms that are timeless, unchanging, and more perfect than the world we encounter everyday.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Everything is physical, and reality consists of matter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reality consists of one all-encompassing thing, and all particular things are an expression of this.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Reality consists of ideas and the minds that house them. What people perceive as material objects is actually bundles of God-given ideas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Mind and matter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>John Locke (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They are essentially computers because they process, store, encode, decode, and manipulate information in orderly ways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Since existence is a feature of perfection, and God is defined as a supremely perfect being, God must exist.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is impossible for any natural thing in the world to create itself. At some point in this series, there must be a cause which is God.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The evidence of design and purpose in the natural world suggests an intelligent designer or creator.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Life is meaningless.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Human life is meaningful because a supremely loving being has given people the gift of existing, therefore giving life a purpose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Meaning is found in the practices of this world, rather than through an other-worldly orientation. Meaning is invented, not discovered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<ol> <li>The statement must be true. 2) The person must believe it.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Plato suggested that besides truth and belief, justification is also required. This was challenged by Edmund Gettier.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Non-false justification, suggesting that justification must not rely on a false statement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is an attitude of doubting and questioning assumptions until they are proven.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The practical and the useful. People should believe only things that are useful to them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The intended meaning of a writer differs from the assumed meaning of a reader, even words themselves carry multiple interpretations. Language undermines certainty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Continually redefine and improve ideas or concepts to make them more useful or beneficial to society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A belief is true if it matches a fact about the physical world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Truth should be evaluated based on practical consequences rather than fixed standards. If something works, is useful or is successful, then it is true.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A belief is true if it is consistent with other beliefs or a body of knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Objectivism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that art reflects or creates an illusion of reality, often emphasizing realism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It refers to how a work is structured or organized, not needing to represent anything.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They use formal elements and subject matter to evoke strong feelings and share inner emotion, and success is measured by the viewer's emotional response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Creating truly beautiful art was an important way to inspire goodness and reason in citizens. The idea of beauty and moral goodness are inseparable, as beauty awakens a desire to pursue goodness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Aesthetic experiences and activities have their own distinct nature, and we can analyze and comprehend art forms like we can understand natural phenomena. Artwork creates a sense of unity between nature and understanding of the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a reaction against the old way of thinking about beauty and truth. They question absolute truths and beauty, focusing on how society shapes us and celebrating differences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ideas of beauty and taste have taken on new meanings in today's world, as the influence of people whose voices were not heard has changed the way many people view works of art, such as feminist aesthetics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They focus on the nature, origins, and possibility of moral knowledge and judgments, rather than specific moral actions or rules.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Virtue is a matter of acting in accordance with reason. The theory of the Golden Mean: virtuous behaviour lies in finding a middle ground between extremes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People can achieve perfection only by using their reason to know God. The focus is on doing the right thing in obedience to God.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>He listed seven virtues from least to most important: fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-improvement, and non-maleficence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>What is considered virtuous varies across different societies and time periods. These virtues cary depending on the practice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The idea that a Supreme Being defines right and wrong.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A morally good choice is one that results in the greatest good for the greatest number of people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Moral choices must be judged by the good will of the person making the choice. Actions based on principles that can be univerally applied with no exceptions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People should act in their own interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Right or wrong can be known instinctively, without reason.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It questions the idea that there is one superior moral code. Values are entirely subjective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary objective of philosophy is to encourage individuals to think critically and develop their own philosophical perspectives based on sound reasoning. Its goal is to address fundamental questions about life, existence, and human nature.

The Classical Period in philosophy spans from 700 BCE to 300 CE. It emphasized metaphysics and the nature of reality, with many philosophers concluding that matter forms the basis of everything. Key figures include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

The Medieval Period, lasting from 900 to 1400 CE, saw philosophy heavily influenced by Christianity, primarily focusing on ethics. Notable figures include St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas.

The Renaissance, lasting from 1500 to 1600 CE, witnessed a renewed interest in diverse philosophical questions beyond ethics, encompassing a broader range of topics. A key figure of this period is Francis Bacon.

The Early Modern Period, spanning from 1500 to 1800 CE, saw scientific discoveries influence philosophers. They emphasized material explanations and reason, focusing on the role of empirical evidence in understanding the world. Key figures include Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

The Enlightenment Period, lasting from 1687 to 1789 CE, extended the emphasis on reason and empirical evidence to understand human nature and society. It aimed to shed light on human rights, individual liberty, and the role of reason in societal progress. Key figures include Immanuel Kant and Voltaire.

The Late Modern Period, spanning the 1800s, witnessed a diversification of philosophical perspectives, including the emergence of feminist philosophy and new schools of thought such as phenomenology and existentialism. This period saw a deep exploration of human consciousness, social structures, and the individual's place in the world. A key figure of this period is Karl Marx.

The Contemporary Period in philosophy, from 1900 to the present, continues to be characterized by dynamism and diverse perspectives. This period encompasses a wide range of philosophical movements and debates, including postmodernism, feminism, critical theory, and analytic philosophy. Key figures include Judith Butler and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Deductive reasoning is a type of logical argument that aims to produce a sound argument. This means that if the reasoning is valid, then the conclusion must be true if the premises are true. Deductive arguments typically involve premises that lead to a specific conclusion. Common types of deductive arguments include: Categorical (all _____ have), Disjunctive (choice), and Hypothetical (if-then).

Inductive reasoning involves drawing a conclusion or making a generalization based on specific evidence. It starts with specific observations and attempts to reach a general conclusion. The reliability of this reasoning depends on the quality and quantity of the evidence used.

Abductive reasoning involves making an educated guess or the best explanation based on available information. It is a type of inference where one makes the most likely explanation to fit the observed evidence.

A fallacy is a flaw or error in logic. It is a type of argument that attempts to persuade without providing legitimate grounds for the conclusion. Fallacies often rely on misleading or irrelevant information to deceive or manipulate the audience.

Pre-Socratic philosophers, concerned with understanding the universe, proposed reason-based theories to explain the natural world. They developed the concept of atomism, suggesting that matter consists of invisible particles. This marked an early attempt to explain the universe through scientific principles.

Aristotle, known for his systematic approach to understanding the world, collected data from nature using meticulous observation. His work laid the foundation for empirical observation and scientific inquiry.

Claudius Ptolemy, a prominent astronomer, proposed the geocentric theory, placing Earth at the center of the universe. This theory, though influential for centuries, was later replaced by the heliocentric model.

Nicolaus Copernicus introduced the heliocentric theory, suggesting that the Sun, not Earth, is the center of the universe. This revolutionary idea challenged prevailing beliefs and shifted our understanding of the cosmos, moving away from religiously based models.

Francis Bacon, a key figure in the Scientific Revolution, advocated for the scientific method. He emphasized the importance of testing hypotheses through sensory evidence and experimentation, marking a shift towards systematic and empirical inquiry.

Isaac Newton, a renowned physicist and mathematician, formulated universal laws of motion. His work blended scientific principles with religious views, suggesting that God had set the universe in motion with purpose and design.

Charles Darwin, a biologist, revolutionized our understanding of life on Earth with his theory of natural selection. His work, based on scientific observation and evidence, proposed that species evolve through a process of adaptation and survival of the fittest.

Keiji Nishitani, a prominent Japanese philosopher, questioned the potential negative implications of scientific discoveries, particularly the possibility that they could lead to nihilism. He explored the relationship between science and meaning in life, especially in the context of the rapid advancements of modern science.

Karl Popper, a philosopher of science, proposed the principle of falsificationism. He argued that theories cannot be proven true but only tested and accepted tentatively if they withstand attempts to disprove them. This approach emphasized the importance of testability and critical evaluation in scientific inquiry.

The Anarchistic Epistemologist Response to the question of whether science alone is enough argues that predicting future knowledge is impossible. Instead, scientists might introduce new paradigms to understand the universe in fundamentally different ways. This perspective emphasizes the fluidity and evolving nature of scientific understanding.

The Instrumentalist Response to the question of whether science alone is enough views scientific theories as practical tools for organizing natural phenomena rather than accurate descriptions of reality. This perspective prioritizes usefulness and predictability over absolute truth claims.

The Logical Positivist Response argues that scientific statements must be either true by definition or verifiable by evidence. This perspective emphasizes the importance of empirical verification and rejects metaphysical claims that cannot be empirically tested.

Astrology is generally regarded as a pseudo-science due to its lack of rigorous methodology and reliance on selective evidence. While astrology makes claims about the influence of celestial bodies on human affairs, it falls short in terms of developing testable and falsifiable theories, making it less scientifically credible.

Realism, a philosophical view, posits that reality consists of ideal forms that are timeless, unchanging, and more perfect than the world humans experience daily. These forms are perfect and unchanging, while the visible world is a mere shadow or reflection of these eternal forms. A key proponent of this view is Plato.

Materialism is a philosophical view that asserts everything is physical and reality consists of matter. It rejects the existence of a non-physical realm or spiritual essence, maintaining that all phenomena, including consciousness, can be reduced to material processes. A key proponent of this view is Thomas Hobbes.

Monism is a philosophical view that posits that reality consists of one all-encompassing thing. It argues that all particular things are expressions or manifestations of this underlying unity. This view emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of all things. A key proponent of this view is Baruch Spinoza.

Idealism is a philosophical view that proposes that reality consists of ideas and the minds that house them. It suggests that what humans perceive as material objects are actually bundles of ideas, placed in their minds by God. A key proponent of this view is George Berkeley.

Dualism, a philosophical view, suggests that reality consists of two fundamentally different kinds of things: mind and matter. It asserts that mental phenomena (thoughts, feelings, consciousness) cannot be reduced to or explained by material processes. A key proponent of this view is René Descartes.