PHIL 230 - Final Exam Review
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Questions and Answers

What does the Greater Moral Evil Rule (GME) state regarding the ownership of belongings?

  • One is permitted to keep belongings only if it involves no sacrifice of equal value. (correct)
  • One should surrender their belongings to prevent greater harm.
  • One can keep their belongings as long as there is no suffering involved.
  • One is allowed to keep their belongings without any moral restrictions.

Negative rights pertain to interference with the body and personal effects.

True (A)

What are the two types of rights discussed in the content?

Negative rights and Positive rights

The industrious farmer deserves their surplus because of their _____.

<p>effort</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to John Arthur, what is a morally significant factor that complicates obligations?

<p>Desert (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

<p>Negative rights = Rights that require non-interference Positive rights = Rights to social goods like education Desert = Entitlement based on effort or merit Duty to help = Moral responsibility to assist others</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Moderate GME suggests it is wrong not to help others if it incurs substantial cost to oneself.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a moral dilemma presented in the content?

<p>Saving a pregnant person's life at the cost of an unborn human</p> Signup and view all the answers

What makes a good will good?

<p>Conformity with moral law (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

All imperatives are categorical imperatives.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three components included in a maxim?

<p>Description of the physical act, description of circumstances, purpose or end of the action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The moral law is the only ________ imperative.

<p>categorical</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following formulations with their descriptions:

<p>Formula of Universal Law = Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. False promise = A thought experiment to evaluate the rationality of a proposed action's maxim.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes a hypothetical imperative?

<p>It involves 'if/then' conditions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Maxims must always be consciously considered before acting.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the process to evaluate a maxim using the 'false promise' thought experiment.

<ol> <li>Formulate the maxim for your proposed action. 2) Universalize it. 3) Consider its conceivability. 4) Determine if you can rationally will it to become a universal law.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What moral principle is established by the Trolley problem?

<p>Duty to save the greatest number outweighs the duty not to kill. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Footbridge case, George pushes a large man to save five people, which is deemed morally permissible.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'future like ours' argument concerning the immorality of killing?

<p>Depriving a being of the value of a future like ours makes killing wrong.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Don Marquis argues that it is __________ to take the life of a fetus because it deprives them of a future like ours.

<p>immoral</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the cases with their moral implications:

<p>Trolley Problem = Duty of least harm Footbridge Dilemma = Introduction of a new threat Health Pebble = No greater claim than others Future Like Ours Argument = Deprivation of future value</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the Passenger case from the Footbridge case?

<p>Footbridge case actively brings a new threat, whereas Passenger case redirects an existing threat. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pro-choice advocates argue that fetuses are persons and therefore abortion is always wrong.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Marquis, why is it too broad to claim that fetuses are genetically human and abortion is wrong?

<p>Because it would also imply that killing cancer cells is wrong.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Kant argue about using people as mere means?

<p>It is always forbidden. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Kant believes that experience and observation are central to moral decision-making.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary condition for treating someone as an end in themselves according to Kant?

<p>Not using them as mere means and respecting them as rational persons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Kant's formula states we should 'act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether your own person or others, never merely as a means but always at the same time as an _____'.

<p>end</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts with their definitions:

<p>Humanity as a Means = Using individuals in such a way that they cannot consent. Humanity as an End = Respecting individuals as rational beings with their own goals. Rossian Pluralism = The idea that there can be multiple morally significant relationships. Murder at the Door Problem = The ethical dilemma of lying to save a life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates using a person as mere means?

<p>A nurse lying to a patient about their condition. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Ross, breaking a promise is generally better than keeping it.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'humanity in one’s own person' according to Kant?

<p>The capacity to set and pursue ends.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Aristotle, what are virtues of character intended to help us achieve?

<p>Engage in rational activity excellently (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Virtues are innate traits that one is born with.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What three conditions must be met to acquire a virtue according to Aristotle?

<p>Know that the act is virtuous, do the virtuous act because it is virtuous, develop a firm disposition to do virtuous acts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A virtue is a mean between two extremes of _____ and _____ .

<p>excess, deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following virtues to their descriptions:

<p>Courage = Acting bravely in the face of fear Justice = Treating others fairly Temperance = Moderating desires and impulses Honesty = Being truthful in words and actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hursthouse argue about virtue ethics (VE)?

<p>VE can help define right actions in terms of virtue (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hursthouse suggests that one can determine what a virtuous agent would do by consulting a list of virtues.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name at least three virtues listed by Hursthouse in normative virtue ethics.

<p>Courage, honesty, justice</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hursthouse argue about cases involving apparent conflicts between virtues?

<p>There is no genuine conflict between the virtues. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to virtue ethics, if two fully virtuous agents perform opposing actions in the same circumstances, then one of those actions must be wrong.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are moral dilemmas defined as in the context of virtue ethics?

<p>Cases in which there is no right action and all available actions seem wrong.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hursthouse states that each option that a virtuous agent would choose is considered __________.

<p>right</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does virtue ethics imply about the existence of genuine moral dilemmas?

<p>They show how and why conflicts can be real. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hursthouse believes that knowledge of the right action in virtue ethics requires simple reasoning.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In virtue ethical terms, what is implied about actions taken by fully virtuous agents in cases of genuine conflict?

<p>Both actions are considered right.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is the Greater Moral Evil Rule (GME)?

The Greater Moral Evil Rule (GME) states that you are morally permitted to keep your belongings only if giving them away would require you to sacrifice something of equal moral value.

What is Moral Equality?

Moral equality suggests that suffering is equally significant regardless of who experiences it. This means that we should give equal consideration to the interests of all individuals.

What is John Arthur's main argument in "World Hunger and Moral Obligation: The Case Against Singer"?

John Arthur argues that rights and desert (what someone deserves) are also morally significant factors that should be considered alongside the GME. He argues that these factors can sometimes outweigh the duty to help others.

What are negative rights and positive rights?

Negative rights are freedoms from interference, such as the right to your body or privacy. Positive rights are entitlements to things like healthcare or education.

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How does the right to one's own body relate to the GME?

A right to your kidney means you are not obligated to give it away even if someone else desperately needs it. This right is not overridden by the potential benefits to others.

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What is desert in the context of moral obligation?

Desert refers to what someone deserves, based on their actions or merits. A hard-working farmer might deserve their surplus, even if a lazy neighbor is in need.

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What is the Moderate GME?

The Moderate GME suggests that while we have a moral obligation to prevent harm without significant cost, it isn't necessarily wrong to not make massive sacrifices for distant strangers.

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What are moral trade-offs?

Trade-offs in moral situations occur when choosing one option necessitates sacrificing another. For example, saving a pregnant woman's life might involve ending the life of the unborn child.

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Good Will (Kant)

The idea that good will is valuable in itself, regardless of its consequences. Its goodness comes from its conformity with moral law.

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Imperatives

Commands or rules that tell us what we ought to do. Imply a sense of obligation.

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Hypothetical Imperatives

Imperatives that tell us what to do given specific circumstances or conditions. Format: 'If X, then Y'.

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Categorical Imperatives

Imperatives that tell us what to do unconditionally, regardless of any specific circumstances. These are universally binding.

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Maxims

A principle or rule that guides our actions. Includes the description of the action, circumstances, and the purpose.

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Formula of Universal Law (FUL)

The idea that we should act only according to maxims that we can consistently universalize. This means that our actions should be based on principles that we believe everyone should follow.

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Universalization of Maxims

The reason for action should be compatible with the universalization of that reason. If your reason for acting leads to a contradiction when universalized, then your action is wrong.

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False Promise (Thought Experiment)

A thought experiment used to test the universalizability of maxims. It involves considering the consequences of a universalized lie.

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Trolley Problem: Conflict of Negative Duties

The ethical dilemma of choosing between two negative duties, where one duty involves causing less harm than the other.

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Transplant Problem: Negative vs. Positive Duty

The ethical dilemma of choosing between a negative duty (not to harm) and a positive duty (to help), where the negative duty outweighs the positive duty.

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Passenger Case

A scenario where someone can deflect a threat from a larger group onto a smaller group, leading to a moral dilemma about the permissibility of the action.

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Footbridge Case

A scenario where someone can bring a different threat to bear on a smaller group by their action, leading to a moral dilemma about the permissibility of the action.

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Health Pebble

A scenario where the permissibility of deflecting a threat (like the trolley) or bringing a different threat (like pushing the man) depends on whether the individual has a greater claim to the object or entity at risk than the larger group.

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Future Like Ours Argument (FLO)

The idea that the morality of an action is determined based on the impact on the future of the victim.

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Don Marquis' Argument Against Abortion

The argument that abortion is immoral because it deprives a fetus of a valuable future like ours.

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Pro-Choice Argument: Fetuses Not Persons

A position that abortion is not always wrong, considering that fetuses might not be persons (rational/social beings) until later stages of pregnancy.

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What does virtue ethics say about moral dilemmas?

Virtue ethics theory states that there are no genuine moral dilemmas, and any action a virtuous agent would take is right.

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How does virtue ethics address apparent conflicts between virtues?

In cases involving apparent conflict between virtues, virtue ethics argues there's actually no conflict, and a virtuous person would choose a clear best action.

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What happens when there ARE genuine conflicts between virtues in virtue ethics?

Virtue ethics acknowledges that genuine conflicts between virtues can exist, but it argues that multiple actions are morally permissible in such cases.

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Virtue ethics and genuine moral dilemmas

Virtue ethicists argue that genuine moral dilemmas don't exist, as any action a virtuous agent would take is morally permissible.

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Using Someone as Mere Means

Treating someone solely as a means to achieve your own goals, without respecting their autonomy or capacity to set their own ends.

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Treating Someone as an End in Themselves

Treating someone as an end in themselves means recognizing their inherent worth and respecting their ability to make their own choices.

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Kant's Humanity Formula

Kant's principle states that we should act in a way that always treats humanity, both in ourselves and others, as an end and never merely as a means.

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Using Someone as Mere Means (Expanded)

To use someone as a mere means is to involve them in a plan without their knowing consent, or without their ability to choose whether or not to participate.

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Kant's Humanity Formula (Universality)

This formula applies to all human actions, without exception. There are no situations where it's okay to treat someone solely as a means.

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Fostering Others' Ends

We should not only refrain from using others as mere means, but also actively seek to promote their well-being and help them achieve their goals when possible.

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Rossian Pluralism

The idea that there are multiple, equally important moral considerations that can be relevant in specific ethical dilemmas, rather than just one overarching principle.

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Rossian Pluralism (Conflict)

This theory suggests that there can be a conflict between different moral duties, and it may be difficult to determine which one to prioritize.

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What's a virtuous agent?

A virtuous agent is someone who habitually acts virtuously. They possess and exercise virtues like honesty, justice, and temperance.

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How does Virtue Ethics define right action?

Right actions are those that a virtuous agent would typically perform in a given situation.

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What are virtues, according to Virtue Ethics?

Virtues are character traits developed through habituation, like honesty, justice, and courage. They are the mean between excess and deficiency.

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How do virtues help us live well?

Virtue Ethics says that possessing and practicing virtues help us live well and attain our purpose as human beings.

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What's a common objection to Virtue Ethics and its response?

It's a common objection to virtue ethics that it only tells us how to be, not what to do. However, it can offer guidance by telling us what a virtuous person would do in a specific situation.

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How does Virtue Ethics deal with conflicting virtues?

When virtues seem to conflict in a situation, we can consult a list of virtues and reason through the situation to determine what a virtuous agent would do.

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How can we know what a virtuous agent would do in a situation?

If you want to know the right action in a situation, you can ask a virtuous person for advice or consult a catalog of virtues.

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How do we acquire virtues?

Developing virtues requires a conscious effort to understand what is virtuous, choose to act virtuously, and develop a stable disposition to act virtuously.

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Study Notes

PHIL 230 - Final Exam Review

  • Exam structure includes 6 short answer questions (3-6 sentences each, 5 points) and 2 essay prompts (similar to paper assignments, but with less expectations)
  • Moral Relativism vs Moral Objectivism
    • Cultural relativism suggests moral truths are relative to cultures.
    • Subjective relativism proposes moral truths are relative to individuals.
    • Moral objectivism posits that some ethical truths are universal and objective (related to Enoch’s "Why I am an Objectivist and you are too".)
    • A sound argument needs true premises and a conclusion that logically follows those premises.
    • Moral relativism creates problematic implications: cultures are infallible, disagreements are unintelligible, and progress is impossible.
  • Our Obligations to Others
    • Peter Singer - Famine, Affluence, and Mortality: Arguments that affluence requires significant donations until the point of marginal utility.
    • Singer's argument does not address proximity to suffering or the number of others who could help.
    • John Arthur - World Hunger and Moral Obligation: The Case Against Singer: Posits that entitlements (rights and desert) are also morally significant factors, disputing Singer's argument.
    • Disagreement exists regarding the extent of moral obligations to assist those in need.
  • Moral Problems: Tradeoffs
    • Philipa Foot - The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine of Double Effect: Explores the moral permissibility of actions with both good and bad consequences.
    • Doctrine of Double Effect (DDE): Explains when an action with foreseen bad consequences might be permissible, as long as the outcome is intended to be good, even with negative byproducts.
    • Foot argues against DDE, highlighting that the distinction between intended and foreseen consequences isn't always clear.
    • Judith Jarvis Thomson - Killing, Letting Die, and the Trolley Problem: Investigates moral dilemmas involving the choice between saving many lives and causing harm to one.
    • Thomson highlights the distinction between acts and omissions, arguing in some cases killing is permissible but in others it isn't.
  • Abortion
    • Don Marquis - Why Abortion is Immoral: Argues that abortion is morally wrong by using an argument of loss of a valuable future.
    • Judith Jarvis Thomson - A Defense of Abortion: Argues the right to one's own body can outweigh the right to life of a fetus in some circumstances.
  • Consequentialism
    • Jeremy Bentham - The Principle of Utility: Act's rightness/wrongness is dependent solely on outcomes (consequences).
    • Utilitarianism prioritizes actions that maximize overall well-being for everyone affected.
    • John Stuart Mill - In Defense of Utilitarianism and Robert Nozick - The Experience Machine: Utilitarianism struggles to explain how to measure the well-being of various options.
  • Difficulties with Consequentialism
    • Issues with demandingness and impartiality are addressed.
  • Kantian Ethics
    • Immanuel Kant - The Moral Law and Autonomy of the Will: Good will is supremely important to morality. The Categorical Imperative guides right actions.
  • Two Formulations:
    • Formula of Universal Law (FUL): An action is morally right only if one can will it to become a universal law.
    • Formula of Humanity: Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.
    • Onora O'Neill - Kant on Treating People as Ends in Themselves: Critiques Kant and addresses the practical limits of these formulations.
  • Rossian Pluralism
    • W.D. Ross - What Makes Right Acts Right?: Morality is complex, with multiple values that can conflict.
    • Recognizes prima facie duties (duties in specific circumstances) and the difficulties in determining overall obligations.
  • **Ethics of Care: **
    • Gilligan's approach: A different moral voice and the importance of interpersonal relations.
    • Prioritizes care, responsibility, and context.
    • Carol Gilligan: Focuses on the care perspective, emphasizing relationships and responsibilities.
    • Nel Noddings: Focuses on ethical caring and the emotional aspects of relationships in moral decision-making.
  • Natural Caring vs Ethical Caring: Distinction between naturally feeling concern for others versus feeling a moral duty to care for them.
  • Ubuntu Philosophy
    • Thaddeus Metz - Toward an African Moral Theory: Moral framework emphasizing interconnectedness and community.
  • Conflict Problems
    • Identifying genuine conflicts between the virtues and difficulties in deciding what constitutes the "right" course of action.
  • Virtue Ethics (VE)
    • Aristotle - Nichomachean Ethics (selections): Philosophical approach focusing on the development of virtuous character traits.
    • Right acts are performed by a virtuous person and are not just described in isolation; the virtuous person is essential to deciding what is right.
    • Rosalind Hursthouse: Focuses on practical applications of virtue ethics.

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PHIL 230 Final Exam Review PDF Study Guide

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Prepare for your PHIL 230 final exam with a comprehensive review of key concepts such as moral relativism and moral objectivism. This quiz will explore significant philosophical arguments, including Peter Singer’s perspectives on affluence and our obligations to others. Brush up on essay structures and argument analysis to excel in your exam.

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