Phases of the Moon and Atmosphere Layers

Phases of the Moon

• The Moon goes through phases as seen from Earth due to its orbit around Earth and the changing angles of sunlight reflecting off its surface.
• Solar eclipses occur during the new moon phase, when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth.
• Lunar eclipses occur during a full moon phase, when the Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon.
• Umbra: The darkest part of a shadow, where light is completely blocked.
• Penumbra: The lighter part of a shadow, where only some light is blocked.
• Annular eclipse: A type of solar eclipse where a bright ring is visible around the eclipsing body.

Layers of the Atmosphere

• Troposphere: The lowest layer of the atmosphere. Air pressure and temperature decrease with altitude.
• Stratosphere (Ozone): Located above the troposphere, containing the ozone layer which absorbs harmful UV radiation. Commercial jets fly in the lower stratosphere.
• Mesosphere: Above the stratosphere, where most meteors burn up. Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Thermosphere (Ionosphere): Contains the Kármán Line, boundary between atmosphere and space. The temperature increases significantly at high altitudes due to absorption of high-energy radiation. The thermosphere contains the aurora (borealis and australis).

Water Cycle Processes

• Evaporation: Liquid water changes to a gas (water vapor).
• Condensation: Water vapor changes to a liquid (water).
• Precipitation: Water falls from the atmosphere as rain, snow, hail, or sleet.
• Transpiration: Evaporation of water from plants.
• Runoff: Water that flows over the land surface into rivers and lakes.

Light

• Rayleigh scattering: Explains why blue light scatters more than red light.
• Interference: The interaction of light waves that can increase or decrease the overall amplitude.
• Reflection: The bouncing of light off a surface.
• Refraction: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another.
• Photon: Particle of light energy.
• Photoelectric effect: Emission of electrons from a material when it's exposed to electromagnetic radiation (like light).
• Isochoric: A thermodynamic process where volume remains constant.
• Isobaric: A thermodynamic process where pressure remains constant.
• Isothermal: A thermodynamic process where temperature remains constant.
• Adiabatic: A thermodynamic process where no heat is transferred into or out of the system.
• Conduction: Transfer of heat through direct contact between molecules.
• Convection: Transfer of heat through movement of fluids (like liquids or gases).
• Radiation: Transfer of heat through space.

Electromagnetic Induction, Simple Machines, and Energy

• Electromagnetic induction: Generating an electrical current with moving magnetic fields.
• Simple Machines: Inclined plane, pulley, wheel and axle, lever. These machines can change the direction or amount of force needed to move an object.
• Power: Rate at which work is done.
• Work: Force * distance.
• Net force: The overall force acting on an object.
• Kinetic energy: Energy of motion.
• Potential energy: Stored energy.
• Scalar quantity: A physical quantity with only magnitude (e.g., temperature).
• Vector quantity: A physical quantity with both magnitude and direction (e.g., force).

Chemical Reactions

• Combination reaction: Two or more reactants combine to form one product.
• Decomposition reaction: One reactant breaks down to form two or more products.
• Precipitation reaction: Two soluble compounds react to form an insoluble product (precipitate).
• Neutralization reaction: An acid and a base react to form a salt and water.
• Combustion reaction: A substance reacts rapidly with oxygen, releasing heat and light.
• Displacement reaction: One element replaces another element within a compound.

Properties of Metals

• Physical state/appearance: Most are solids at room temperature.
• Luster: Smooth surface that reflects light.
• Malleability: Can be hammered into thin sheets.
• Ductility: Can be drawn into wires.
• Hardness: Generally hard but some exceptions.
• Valency: Usually 1-3 valence electrons in outermost shell.
• Electrical/thermal conductivity: Good conductors.
• Density: Generally high density.
• Melting and boiling points: Generally high.