Pharmacognosy Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is a known anticancer property of cyanogenetic glycosides?

  • They possess anticancer properties. (correct)
  • They promote cell growth.
  • They induce cell death.
  • They prevent inflammation.

Amygdalin is primarily found in the sweet almond species.

False (B)

What type of linkage connects the two glucose molecules in gentiobiose?

β-1,6 linkage

During the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin, two molecules of glucose and one molecule of _______ are produced.

<p>mandelonitrile</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the glycosides with their corresponding aglycone moiety:

<p>Amygdalin = Mandelonitrile Prunasin = Benzaldehyde-cyanohydrin Linamarin = Acetone-cyanohydrin Gentiobiose = Two glucose molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who was the first to use the term pharmacognosy?

<p>Johann Adam Schmidt (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pharmacognosy exclusively focuses on synthetic drugs.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is defined as 'the study of the traditional use of plants for medicinal purposes'?

<p>Medical ethnobotany</p> Signup and view all the answers

The German term for 'science of crude drugs' is ______.

<p>drogenkunde</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following fields of pharmacognosy with their descriptions:

<p>Medical ethnobotany = Traditional use of plants for medicinal purposes Phytotherapy = Medicinal use of plant extracts Ethnopharmacology = Pharmacological qualities of traditional medicinal substances Zoopharmacognosy = Self-medication processes in animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does phytochemistry study?

<p>Chemicals derived from plants (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Galen's work was instrumental in the development of Materia Medica.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the process by which animals use natural resources to treat diseases?

<p>Zoopharmacognosy</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main pharmacological action of anthraquinone glycosides found in Senna?

<p>Laxative (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rhubarb does not contain any anthraquinones.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the botanical source of Frangula bark?

<p>Rhamnus frangula Linn.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Senna contains the anthraquinone glycosides known as __________ A and B.

<p>sennoside</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following plants with their primary uses:

<p>Senna = Laxative Rhubarb = Antiseptic Frangula Bark = Purgative Aloes = Vermifuge</p> Signup and view all the answers

What color indicates the presence of anthraquinone glycosides when using Borntrager’s test on Senna?

<p>Pink to red (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aloes is primarily used as a tonic and emollient.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What chemical test is used to detect anthraquinone glycosides in Rhubarb?

<p>Borntrager's test</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a synonym for Asafoetida?

<p>Garlic root (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Asafoetida is primarily sourced from the roots and rhizome of plants belonging to the Apiaceae family.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main geographical source of Asafoetida?

<p>Iran, Turkestan, and Afghanistan</p> Signup and view all the answers

Asafoetida contains volatile oil, resin, and _____ as its main chemical constituents.

<p>gum</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process is used to collect Asafoetida from its plant?

<p>Incision of the decapitated rhizome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The blue fluorescence observed with Asafoetida is due to the conversion of ferulic acid into umbelliferone.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the chemical tests with their observed results:

<p>Trituration with water = Milky emulsion Boiled with hydrochloric acid = Blue fluorescence Add 50% nitric acid = Green color Add sulfuric acid = Acid reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes the garlic-like odor of Asafoetida oil?

<p>Sulfur compounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions can be treated with the food plant Manihot esculenta?

<p>Hypertension (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Glucosinolates are present in monocotyledonous plant families.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do glucosinolates have on plants regarding pests?

<p>They contribute to the plant’s defense against pests and diseases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The bitter flavor in cruciferous vegetables is imparted by __________.

<p>glucosinolates</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following plants with their glucosinolate sources:

<p>White mustard = Sinalbin Black mustard = Sinigrin Cabbage = Glucosinolates Horseradish = Mustard oils</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about glucosinolates is true?

<p>They are irritants used as counter irritants. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

All glucosinolates contain sulfur.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What enzyme hydrolyzes glucosinolates in the presence of water?

<p>Myrosinase</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an adulterant for asafoetida?

<p>Almonds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Galbanum and ammoniacum contain the same primary active compounds.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary medicinal use of substances derived from galbanum?

<p>Antioxidant</p> Signup and view all the answers

Galbanum is obtained mainly from the plant species _____ galbaniflua.

<p>Ferula</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following medicinal uses with their corresponding actions:

<p>Antimicrobial = Fights against microbes Hepatoprotective = Maintains a healthy liver Anti-diabetic = Fights against diabetes Neuroprotective = Protects the nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is treated with asafoetida?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one biological source of coumarin glycosides.

<p>Haplophyllum dauricum</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ferula galbaniflua is primarily found in the eastern regions of the Mediterranean.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ancient document describes the use of medicinal plants and was written around 1500 B.C.?

<p>Papyrus Ebers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pharmacognosy exclusively studies synthetic drugs derived from chemical processes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is known as the father of medicine?

<p>Hippocrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

The term 'pharmacognosy' is derived from the Greek words _____ (drug) and _____ (knowledge).

<p>pharmakon, gnosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following historical figures with their contributions to pharmacognosy:

<p>Hippocrates = Father of Medicine Dioscorides = Compiled De Materia Medica Aristotle = Study of Animal Kingdom Theoprastus = Study of Medicinal Plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which Greek physician described 600 therapeutic medicinal plants?

<p>Dioscorides (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The development of pharmacognosy has not changed significantly in recent years.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is pharmacognosy primarily concerned with?

<p>Study of drugs derived from natural sources</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an adulterant commonly found in asafoetida?

<p>Olive oil (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Galbanum and ammoniacum are both sourced from the same plant species.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one medicinal property of galbanum.

<p>Antioxidant</p> Signup and view all the answers

The primary active compounds found in ammoniacum include _______.

<p>ammoresinol</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following properties is NOT attributed to the medicinal uses of asafoetida?

<p>Cardiac stimulant (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The volatile oil in galbanum contains predominantly monoterpenes.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary component found in the volatile oil of ammoniacum?

<p>Ferulene</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary action of anthraquinone glycosides in the human body?

<p>Laxative effect (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anthraquinones are soluble in water and alcohol.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What compound is Baccatin III converted to in the synthesis of Taxol?

<p>Taxol</p> Signup and view all the answers

The chemical formula for anthraquinone is ______.

<p>C14H8O2</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sugars is NOT typically present in the glycone moiety of anthracene glycosides?

<p>Sucrose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of psoralens in PUVA treatment?

<p>To make the skin sensitive to UVA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following compounds with their corresponding characteristics:

<p>Anthraquinone = Yellow or light gray-green crystalline powder Frangulin A = Example of anthracene glycoside Rhein glycosides = Increases colon pressure Glycoside = Molecule with glycone and aglycone moieties</p> Signup and view all the answers

Novobiocin is an antibiotic derived from aflatoxin and is effective against penicillin-sensitive bacteria.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anthraquinones are chemically unstable under normal conditions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name one plant species that contains toxic glycosides.

<p>Manihot esculenta</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are anthracene glycosides primarily found?

<p>Dicotyledonous plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

PUVA is a combination treatment of Psoralens and __________ exposure.

<p>UVA</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following antibiotics with their source:

<p>Novobiocin = Streptomyces niveus Coumermycin A1 = Streptomyces coumaceuticalis Clorobiocin = Streptomyces glaucescens</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these is a significant characteristic of Aflatoxins?

<p>They are produced by fungi. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ancient Egyptians were the first to utilize psoralens for skin diseases.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary use of Bergamot Essential Oil?

<p>Promoting physical and emotional well-being</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary use of bitter almond oil?

<p>As a sedative and in treating bronchitis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wild cherry bark contains only coumarin derivatives as its active constituents.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main cyanogenetic glycoside found in cassava?

<p>Linamarin</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hydrolysis of prunasin in wild cherry bark produces benzaldehyde, glucose, and _______.

<p>hydrocyanic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the plant with its primary use:

<p>Bitter Almond = Sedative, bronchitis Wild Cherry Bark = Expectorant, sedative Cassava = Food source Apricot Kernels = Similar to bitter almond</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which compound is produced alongside glucose during the hydrolysis of amygdalin?

<p>Hydrocyanic acid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Extensive boiling of cassava helps to remove toxic compounds.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Name a geographical source of wild cherry bark.

<p>North America</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced when sinigrin undergoes hydrolysis?

<p>Allyl isothiocyanate, potassium acid sulphate, and glucose (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The active constituents in both black mustard and white mustard include phenolic isothiocyanate.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the synonym for white mustard?

<p>Sinapis alba</p> Signup and view all the answers

The enzyme that hydrolyzes sinigrin to produce allyl isothiocyanate is called ______.

<p>myrosinase</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following plants with their primary constituents:

<p>Black mustard = Sinigrin White mustard = Sinalbin Cabbage = Glucosinolates Broccoli = Vitamin C</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following uses is NOT associated with mustard?

<p>Anticoagulant (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Black mustard is native to North America.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sinalbin is a crystalline isothiocyanate glycoside found in ______ mustard.

<p>white</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Pharmacognosy

The study of medicinal substances derived from natural sources, primarily plants and animals.

Materia Medica

A collection of detailed information about medicinal substances, including their properties, uses, and preparations.

Medical Ethnobotany

The study of how traditional cultures use plants for medicinal purposes.

Ethnopharmacology

The study of the pharmacological properties of traditional medicinal substances, often from plants or animals.

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Phytotherapy

The medicinal use of plant extracts for therapeutic purposes.

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Phytochemistry

The study of chemicals produced by plants, including the identification of potential new drug candidates.

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Zoopharmacognosy

The practice by which animals choose and use plants, soils, or insects to treat or prevent illness.

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Pharmacognosy-Biotechnology

The application of biotechnology techniques to synthesize natural bioactive molecules found in plants and animals.

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Anthraquinone Glycosides

A group of compounds found in Senna, Rhubarb, and Aloes, responsible for their laxative effects.

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Borntrager's Test

A chemical test used to identify the presence of anthraquinone glycosides in plant materials, producing a pink to red color when reacted with ammonia.

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Rhubarb (Rheum palmatun)

The dried rhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatun Linn. are known as Rhubarb. It is known for its anticholesterolemic, antispasmodic, and laxative properties.

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Frangula Bark (Rhamnus frangula)

The dried bark of Rhamnus frangula Linn. is known as Frangula Bark. It contains glucofrangulin and is used as a purgative (laxative).

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Aloe

A dried juice extracted from various species of Aloe, including Aloe vera. It is known for its purgative and vermifuge (deworming) properties.

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Aloin

A specific type of anthraquinone glycoside found in Aloe, known for its laxative properties.

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Purgative

A property of a substance that stimulates bowel movements, promoting the elimination of waste.

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Vermifuge

A substance or property that helps to expel parasitic worms from the body.

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Red color turning violet

A red color that turns violet when washed with water, indicating adulteration in a substance.

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Allied Drugs

A group of drugs that have similar properties and uses , often derived from related plants or sources.

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What are cyanogenetic glycosides?

Cyanogenetic glycosides are sugar molecules containing a cyanide group. Their aglycone (non-sugar) part is a cyanohydrin, formed by the condensation of HCN with an aldehyde or ketone.

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What is amygdalin?

Amygdalin is a cyanogenic glycoside found in bitter almonds and other Prunus species. Its aglycone is mandelonitrile, a cyanohydrin of benzaldehyde.

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Asafoetida

A natural resin with a strong, pungent odor, often used in traditional medicine and cooking.

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Galbanum

A resin derived from the plant Ferula galbaniflua, used in traditional medicine for its various therapeutic properties.

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What is gentiobiose?

Gentiobiose is a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules linked by a β-1,6 glycosidic bond. It is found in amygdalin and other glycosides.

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How does amygdalin break down?

Amygdalin's hydrolysis by enzymes yields two glucose molecules and one molecule of mandelonitrile. Mandelonitrile further decomposes to benzaldehyde and HCN.

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Ammoniacum

A resin derived from the plant Dorema ammoniacum, used in traditional medicine for its therapeutic properties.

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Haplophyllum dauricum

A plant species belonging to the Rutaceae family, known for its unique coumarin glycosides, which are found in its roots and above-ground parts.

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What are the possible medicinal uses of cyanogenetic glycosides?

Cyanogenetic glycosides like amygdalin are known for their potential anticancer and anti-anaemic activities.

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Umbelliferone

A chemical compound found in various plants, known for its medicinal properties, including antimicrobial and antioxidant effects.

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What is Asafoetida?

Asafoetida is a gum resin obtained from the rhizome and roots of Ferula species, belonging to the parsley family, Apiaceae.

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Where does Asafoetida come from?

The plant grows in Iran, Turkestan, and Afghanistan, and its sap is collected by cutting the stem near the root and collecting the gum resin that exudes.

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What are the main components of Asafoetida?

The gum resin contains volatile oil, resin, and gum. It is known for its strong garlic-like odor due to sulfur compounds.

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What is a defining odor compound in Asafoetida?

Isopropyl propyl disulfide, a key compound in the volatile oil, contributes to the characteristic garlic-like odor.

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What is the purpose of the blue fluorescence test for Asafoetida?

The resin also contains ferulic acid, which is a compound that produces blue fluorescence in ammonia solution due to its conversion into umbelliferone (a coumarin).

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What are some traditional medicinal uses for Asafoetida?

Asafoetida is used in traditional medicine for a variety of ailments, including digestive issues, respiratory problems, and pain relief.

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Is Asafoetida used in cooking?

Asafoetida is also used as a flavoring agent in food, particularly in Indian cuisine.

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How is Asafoetida used as a food flavoring?

When ground into a powder, it adds a pungent, garlic-like flavor to dishes.

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Glucosinolates

Chemical compounds found in certain plants, particularly those with pungent flavors, like mustard and horseradish.

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Sinigrin

A specific glucosinolate found in black mustard. It contributes to the characteristic flavor and odor.

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Sinalbin

A specific glucosinolate found in white mustard, contributing to its unique flavor profile.

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Myrosinase

An enzyme responsible for breaking down glucosinolates in the presence of water.

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Glucosinolate anion

Anionic components of glucosinolates, giving them their negative charge.

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General functions of Glucosinolates

They enhance the plant's ability to resist infections and pests, providing natural defense.

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Antithyroid and goitre-inducing effect

They can disrupt the thyroid gland and potentially lead to goiter.

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Irritant and counter irritants

They are used topically for pain relief in conditions like neuralgia and rheumatism.

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What is Pharmacognosy?

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources, like plants, animals, microorganisms, and minerals.

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What is the origin of the word "Pharmacognosy"?

The word "Pharmacognosy" is derived from the Greek words "pharmakon" (drug) and "gnosis" (knowledge).

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How is Pharmacognosy interdisciplinary?

Pharmacognosy is a highly interdisciplinary science that combines aspects of botany, chemistry, biology, and pharmacy.

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What is the significance of Pharmacognosy?

Pharmacognosy has played a crucial role in discovering and developing new drugs and therapies.

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How old is the history of Pharmacognosy?

The Papyrus Ebers, an ancient document written in 1500 B.C, described the use of medicinal plants, animal, and human anatomy by the ancient Egyptians.

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Who are some historical figures associated with Pharmacognosy?

Hippocrates, known as the father of medicine, and Aristotle, a renowned philosopher, both used medicinal plants for treating diseases.

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Who is Theoprastus and what is he known for?

Theoprastus, a student of Aristotle, is known for his studies on the plant kingdom and founded the School of Medicinal Plants.

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How did Dioscorides contribute to Pharmacognosy?

Dioscorides, a Greek physician, described 600 medicinal plants in his encyclopedia, De Materia Medica.

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What are anthraquinone glycosides?

Anthraquinone glycosides are a class of compounds found in plants that possess laxative properties, primarily due to their action on the smooth muscles of the large intestine.

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What is the basic structure of anthraquinone glycosides?

The core structure of anthraquinone glycosides is based on anthracene, a three-ringed aromatic compound. They typically contain sugar molecules (glycones) attached to a non-sugar part (aglycone) called anthraquinone.

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What is anthraquinone?

Anthraquinone is a derivative of anthracene and has a yellow or light gray-green appearance. It's insoluble in water or alcohol but dissolves in nitrobenzene and aniline.

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What are the medicinal properties of anthraquinones?

Anthraquinones, including those found in anthraquinone glycosides, are known for their laxative effects. They stimulate the muscles of the colon, increasing peristalsis and promoting bowel movement.

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What are the common sugar components of anthraquinone glycosides?

The sugars commonly found in anthraquinone glycosides include arabinose, rhamnose, and glucose. These sugars make up the glycone part of the molecule.

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How do anthraquinones become laxatives?

Anthraquinones themselves don't necessarily have laxative properties, but when combined with sugar molecules (glycones), they form anthraquinone glycosides which are effective as laxatives.

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What's an example of an anthraquinone glycoside?

One example of an anthraquinone glycoside is Frangulin A, which contains an anthraquinone (aglycone) and sugar molecules (glycone). It is found in the bark of buckthorn trees.

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Where are anthraquinone glycosides found?

Anthraquinone glycosides are mainly found in dicotyledonous plants, but they can also be found in monocotyledonous and lower plants.

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What are Galbanum and Ammoniacum?

Galbanum and ammoniacum are oleo-gum-resins derived from different Ferula species. Both are used in traditional medicine and contain compounds that act as antioxidants, antimicrobials, and antivirals.

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What is Haplophyllum dauricum?

Haplophyllum dauricum is a plant species belonging to the Rutaceae family. It's known for its unique coumarin glycosides found in its roots and above-ground parts. These glycosides have potential medicinal uses due to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

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What are the key components of Ammoniacum?

The major phenolic constituent in ammoniacum is ammoresinol. It also contains a mixture of prenylated chromandiones called ammodoremin. The volatile oil of ammoniacum has a different composition compared to galbanum and contains various terpenoids with ferulene as the major component.

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How do the components of Galbanum and Ammoniacum contribute to their medicinal activity?

These compounds contribute to the various medicinal benefits of both resins. For instance, galbanum contains umbelliferone and umbelliferone ethers, which are known for their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties.

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Amygdalin

A cyanogenetic glycoside found in bitter almonds and other Prunus species. It breaks down into benzaldehyde, glucose, and hydrogen cyanide (HCN).

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Wild Cherry Bark

The dried bark of Prunus serotina, a tree native to North America. It contains prunasin, a cyanogenetic glycoside that breaks down into benzaldehyde, glucose, and HCN.

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Linamarin

A cyanogenetic glycoside found in cassava (Manihot esculenta), a starchy root crop. It breaks down into glucose, acetone, and HCN.

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Lotaustralin

A cyanogenetic glycoside found in cassava (Manihot esculenta), a starchy root crop. It breaks down into glucose, 2-hydroxy-2-methylbutyraldehyde, and HCN.

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Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

A genus of plants in the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) known for their tuberous roots. These roots contain linamarin and lotaustralin, cyanogenic glycosides that release HCN.

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Cyanogenic Glycosides

Sugars that contain a cyanide group. They are typically found in plants and release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) when hydrolyzed.

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Hydrolyzing Enzyme

The enzyme that breaks down cyanogenic glycosides, releasing HCN.

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Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

A toxic compound produced by the breakdown of cyanogenic glycosides. It can be fatal in high doses.

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Aflatoxins

A group of carcinogenic furanocoumarins mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These fungi are common in warm climates.

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PUVA

A type of ultraviolet radiation treatment (phototherapy) used for severe skin diseases. It combines Psoralens (Furanocoumarins) with UVA radiation.

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Psoralens

Compounds found in many plants that make the skin temporarily sensitive to UVA radiation. They are used in PUVA therapy.

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Novobiocin

An antibiotic obtained from aflatoxins. It's an aminocoumarin antibiotic that binds to DNA gyrase and blocks ATPase activity.

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Novobiocin

An aminocoumarin antibiotic that was produced by the actinomycete Streptomyces niveus. It binds to DNA gyrase and blocks ATPase activity.

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Aminocoumarin Antibiotics

A type of antibiotic that binds to DNA gyrase and blocks ATPase activity. Other members of this class include coumermycin A1 and clorobiocin.

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What is Sinigrin?

A pungent, sulfur-containing compound found in black mustard seeds. It's the primary ingredient responsible for black mustard's strong flavor.

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What is Myrosinase?

An enzyme that breaks down glucosinolates, like sinigrin, into their active components. It's found in mustard seeds and related plants.

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What is Sinalbin?

A glucose-containing molecule found in white mustard that breaks down to produce a phenolic isothiocyanate (acrinyl isothiocyanate), glucose, and a quaternary alkaloid known as sinalpine. Unlike sinigrin, it doesn't produce a strong, pungent odor.

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What are Glucosinolates?

A group of chemical compounds found in many plants, particularly those in the mustard family. They are responsible for the pungent taste and odor of foods like mustard, horseradish, and wasabi.

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What is Hydrolysis?

A process where a sugar molecule is broken down into its simpler components. It's often catalyzed by enzymes like myrosinase.

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What is an Isothiocyanate Glycoside?

A type of glucosinolate, like sinigrin and sinalbin, that breaks down into different compounds when hydrolyzed. These compounds give plants their distinctive taste and odor.

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What is Irritant?

This refers to the ability of a substance to irritate the skin or mucous membranes, often leading to redness and inflammation. Black mustard is a good example.

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What is Counter Irritant?

A substance that counteracts or reduces irritation. Often used for pain relief.

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Study Notes

General Introduction to Pharmacognosy

  • Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs derived from natural sources, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and minerals.
  • The word "pharmacognosy" comes from Greek words: "pharmakon" (drug) and "gnosis" (knowledge) or "gignosco" (to acquire knowledge of).
  • Pharmacognosy has undergone change in recent years, representing an interdisciplinary science.
  • It is a major area in pharmaceutical education.
  • The American Society of Pharmacognosy (ASP) defines Pharmacognosy as the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical, and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs, and the search for new drugs from natural sources.
  • Pharmacognosy has been crucial in discovering and developing new drugs and therapies, and continues to do so today.
  • It formed the basis for the development of the subject of Pharmacy.

History of the Development of Pharmacognosy

  • The history of Pharmacognosy is as old as the history of medicine.
  • The Ebers Papyrus, a document from 1500 BCE, described the use of medicinal plants, animals, and human anatomy by ancient Egyptians.
  • The Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BCE), considered the father of medicine, described human anatomy and physiology.
  • Hippocrates and his student Aristotle (384-287 BCE) used medicinal plants to treat diseases.
  • Theoprastus (370-287 BCE), a student of Aristotle, is known for the study of the plant kingdom.
  • Dioscorides (AD 78) described 600 medicinal plants in De Materia Medica.
  • Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) compiled Natural History in 37 volumes, a compendium of Roman knowledge, including astronomy, art, magic, geography, and zoology.
  • Galen (AD 131-200) described methods of preparation containing active constituents from plants and animals, known as Galenical pharmacy.
  • Johann Adam Schmidt (1811) and later, a German scientist Sydler (1815), introduced the term Pharmacognosy.

Relationship of Pharmacognosy with other subjects

  • Pharmacognosy is interdisciplinary, drawing on subjects like botany, ethnobotany, medical anthropology, marine biology, microbiology, herbal medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy practice.
  • Subdivisions include medical ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, phytotherapy, phytochemistry, zoopharmacognosy, pharmacognosy-biotechnology, herbal interactions, and marine pharmacognosy.

Marine Pharmacognosy

  • Marine pharmacognosy investigates and identifies medically important plants and animals in marine environments; microorganisms, viruses, algae, fungi, and sponges are sources of drugs.
  • The oceans contain over 5 million species across 30 phyla.
  • Marine sources are a valuable source of new molecular entities, including terpenes, shikimates, polyketides, acetogenins, peptides, and alkaloids.

The Development of Marine Drugs In Modern Times

  • Sponges have been used for centuries for their bioactive compounds and iodine.
  • In the mid-20th century, scientists began systematically studying the ocean for new medicines.
  • Researchers are identifying marine organisms' defensive chemical weapons (secondary metabolites) as potential drugs.
  • Methods of collecting marine drugs include beach combing, wading, snorkeling, dredging, coring, scuba diving, and submersibles.
  • Drying methods remove excess water and debris before extraction,using lyophilization (freeze-drying) or specific temperatures.

Isolation Techniques

  • Techniques for isolating compounds include extraction (using solvents like methanol, chloroform, ethanol, acetonitrile), chromatographic purification, and structure elucidation (using HR-MS, IR, UV-Vis, etc.).
  • Bio-assay testing verifies a compound's anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, etc. activity.

The Scope of Pharmacognosy

  • Pharmacognosy includes research in phytochemistry, microbial chemistry, biosynthesis, biotransformation, chemotaxonomy, biotechnology, and other biological and chemical sciences.
  • It is one of the major branches of the pharmaceutical curriculum, representing the oldest branch of the pharmacy profession.
  • Pharmacognosy considers the history, distribution, cultivation, collection, selection, preparation, commerce, identification, evaluation, preservation, and use of drugs encompassing the health of both humans and other animals.
  • Although most studies focus on plants, other organisms (microbes, marine organisms) are also being researched.

Function of Pharmacognosy

  • Identification of drug sources.
  • Determination of morphological characteristics.
  • Investigation of potency.
  • Planning and design of medicinal plant cultivation.
  • Prescription of collection, drying, and preservation methods.
  • Knowledge about active constituents, chemical nature, and uses of active constituents.

Some Basic Terminologies in Pharmacognosy

  • Drugs can be natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic, derived from plants, animals, and minerals.
  • Crude drugs have undergone only collection and drying (no enhancement in physical or chemical properties).
  • Organized drugs have cellular structures (e.g., digitalis, cinchona); unorganized drugs lack cellular structures (e.g., aloe, agar).
  • Vegetable drugs are those derived from plants, considering it as the main source of drugs.
  • Non-vegetable drugs can be animal-derived or mineral-derived.

Taxonomic (Biological) Classification

  • This is the classification of drugs based on their botanical or zoological phylogeny (order, family, genus, and species).
  • It provides details about the source.
  • Plant species are often classified based on distinguishing characteristics, which permit the separation of crude drugs from different families.
  • Animal-derived drugs may be classified phylogenetically based on their evolutionary relationships.

Morphological Classification

  • The classification method categorizes plants or animal materials into organized or unorganized parts.
  • Vegetable drugs are classified according to plant parts, such as seeds, leaves, barks, roots, rhizomes, flowers, fruits, dried latex, resins, extracts, and others.

Chemical Classification

  • The classification of crude drugs based on the chemical nature of their significant constituents (e.g., alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils, lipids, carbohydrates, vitamins, hormones, and proteins/enzymes).
  • Groups together crude drugs with similar constituents, potentially ignoring structural similarities or differences.

Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification

  • Classification of drugs based on their pharmacological action or therapeutic uses.
  • Compounds acting on the gastro-intestinal tract (e.g., bitters, carminatives, emetics, purgatives), cardiovascular system (e.g., cardiotonics, cardiac depressants), autonomic nervous system (e.g., adrenergics, cholinergics, anticholinergics).

Chemotaxonomic Identification

  • Chemotaxonomy uses chemical markers (especially secondary metabolites) to classify plants to understand the relationships between plants and their chemical constituents.
  • This can help understand evolutionary relations and can be a basis for classifying drugs.
  • Methods such as DNA hybridisation, amino acid sequencing in proteins, and serotaxonomy are used.

Adulteration and Evaluation of Crude Drugs

  • Adulteration refers to the incorporation of impurities into genuine drugs, which can be accidental or deliberate.
  • Evaluation assesses the identity, quality, and purity of the drug.
  • Identity verifies the exact biological source of the drug.
  • Quality measures the quantity or concentration of biologically active constituents.
  • Purity involves the absence or presence of organic or inorganic foreign matter.
  • Evaluation methods include organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical, and biological evaluations.

Secondary Metabolites

  •  Secondary metabolites are chemicals produced by plants as waste products (by-products) or during normal metabolic activities.
  • The importance of secondary metabolites lies in producing commercially unavailable drugs, providing prototypes for synthetic drugs, and producing drugs with slightly modified properties.
  • They are often produced as a defense mechanism against bacteria, fungi, viruses or herbivores.

Anthracene (Anthraquinone) Glycosides

  • Anthracene glycosides are found mainly in dicotyledonous plants, also in monocotyledonous plants.
  • Characterized by their laxative action on humans and other animals.
  •  Their structure is based on anthracene.
  •  Glycosides are formed from aglycone moieties, including anthraquinones, anthranols, anthrones, anthrone dimers or their derivatives.
  • Glycone moiety: Sugars (e.g., arabinose, rhamnose, glucose) are part of the structure.

Properties of Anthraquinones

  • Anthraquinone is an aromatic organic compound.
  • It appears as a yellow or light gray-green, solid crystalline powder.
  • It's not soluble in water or alcohol, but it's soluble in nitrobenzene and aniline.
  • It is chemically stable under normal conditions.
  • It acts as a stimulant cathartic (laxative) by increasing the tone of smooth muscle in the large intestine walls.
  • The compound increases pressure on the colon walls, stimulating peristaltic movement, and expelling stools.
  • Anthraquinone naturally extracted from plants (e.g., aloe, senna, rhubarb, cascara).

Anthracene Glycosides

  • These glycosides are characterized by their reaction to Borntrager's test; they exhibit microsublimation.
  •  O-glycosides and S-glycosides are common; their hydrolysis produces 1:8-dihydroxyanthraquinone, anthranol, anthrone, or dianthrone derivatives.
  • Aglycone: aloemodin, emodin, rhein, chrysophanol, and physcion.
  • Glycone: sugars (e.g., arabinose, rhamnose, glucose).

Test for Anthraquinones

  • Borntrager's test is used to detect the presence of anthraquinones.
  • Sample is treated with chloroform and heated.
  • Filtration and addition of ammonia give a pink/red color. A control should also be performed to assess the reliability of the test.

Cascara Sagrada

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Senna Leaves

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Rhubarb

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Frangula Bark

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Aloes

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Coumarin Glycosides

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Asafoetida

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Haplophyllum dauricum

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Galium odoratum

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Tonka seed

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Hierochloe odorata

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Furanocoumarins

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Bergamot

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Bavchi

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Ammi

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Visnaga

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Cyanogenetic Glycosides in Cassava

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Bitter Almond

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Wild Cherry Bark

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Glucosinolates

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Black Mustard

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White Mustard

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Other Plants Containing Glucosinolates

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Test your knowledge on pharmacognosy, the study of traditional uses of plants for medicinal purposes. This quiz covers various concepts such as glycosides, phytochemistry, and historical figures in the field. Prepare to explore the connection between plants and their therapeutic effects!

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