Pharmacognosy origin & history

• Pharmacognosy involves studying crude drugs from plants, animals, and minerals
• The term originates from the Greek words "Pharmakon" and "Gignosco" or "Gignoso"

Origin of Pharmacognosy

• C.A. Seydler coined the term in 1815 from "pharmakon" and "gnosis in his doctoral thesis Analecta Pharmacognostica
• J.A. Schmidt first used the term in his 1811 book Lehrbuch der materia medica, describing the study of medicinal plant properties

History of Pharmacognosy

Ancient China

• Well known for using Podophyllum
• Well known for using Rhubarb
• Well known for using Ginseng
• Well known for using Stramonium
• Well known for using Cinnamon bark
• Well known for using Ephedra

Ancient Egypt

• The Ebers papyrus contains 800 prescriptions and mentions 700 drugs

Ancient India

• Ayurveda refers to ancient India's traditional medicine system
• Susruta Samhita is the most important text in Ayurveda

Ancient Greece and Rome

• Hippocrates: Father of medicine, known for the Hippocratic Oath for doctors
• Aristotle contributed to Pharmacognosy

Dioscorides

• Described 600 medical plants in De materia medica, some still used today

Galen

• Described methods for preparing formulas with plant and animal drugs

Definition of Terms

• Natural substance: Plant or animal parts or secretions
• Synthetic substances: Lab-synthesized substances
• Total synthesis: Complete synthetic process
• Semi-synthetic: Natural product with chemical modification
• Crude drugs: Natural substances (vegetable/animal) only collected and dried
• Crude: Natural products not advanced in value or improved in condition
• Derivatives (Extractive): Product of extraction containing drug's chief constituent
• Extraction: Removing soluble substances with a liquid solvent (menstruum)
• Menstruum: Liquid solvent in extraction
• Marc: Undissolved portion after extraction
• Extractive: Product of extraction (solvent + dissolved substances)
• Extract: Substance remaining after solvent removal from extractives

Plant Terms

• Indigenous plants: Grow in their native countries/localities
• Naturalized plants: Grow in foreign lands

Scope of Pharmacognosy

• Encompasses medicine
• Encompasses bulk drugs
• Encompasses food supplements
• Encompasses pharmaceutical necessities
• Encompasses pesticides
• Encompasses tissue culture biotechnology
• Encompasses engineering

Definition by Flückiger

• "Simultaneous application of various disciplines to acquire drug knowledge from every viewpoint"

Classification of Drugs

Organized Drugs

• They possess cellular organization with anatomical features
• They consist mostly of crude drugs from plant sources

Unorganized Drugs

• Lacking morphological/anatomical organization, directly reach the market
• They originate from plants, animals, or minerals

Classifications of Drugs

• Arranged alphabetically
• Arranged taxonomically
• Arranged Morphologically
• Arranged Pharmacologically (Therapeutic) by activity
• Arranged Chemically (Biogenetic) which is the most popular approach

Preparation of Crude Drugs

Collection

• Ensures reliable, natural sources
• Collect drugs for maximum constituents in a scientific manner
• It's the most important step after cultivation

Harvesting

• This is important in cultivation technology and the type of drug to be harvested
• Manual harvesting is used for delicate plants
• Mechanical labor is more efficient, and faster

Drying

• Removal of sufficient moisture to improve quality and resist microorganism growth
• Benefits include inhibiting enzymatic reactions
• Benefits include facilitating pulverization and grinding
• Benefits include fixating and converting constituents

Types of Drying

Natural Drying (Sun drying)

• Direct sun drying is possible if contents are stable to high temperature and sunlight
• Shed drying preserves natural color and volatile principles

Artificial Drying

• Oven (tray dryers) are suited for drugs without volatile oils or needing enzyme deactivation
• Vacuum dryers are used for temperature-sensitive drugs
• Spray dryers are suited to highly sensitive drugs under atmospheric conditions plus vacuum drying temperatures

Special drying process

• Curing is a drying process that enhances plant's active ingredients

Collection Factors of Constituents

• Season
• Age of plant
• Time
• General rule: collect plant samples in the early morning

Examples:

• Vanilla sweating process
• Cascara sagrada macerated in MgO for 1 year enhances palatability and reduces Al, making it less irritating

Garbling

• Final preparation step, removing foreign matter like other plant parts, dirt, and adulterants
• It ensures quality, safety, and desired constituent

Packaging, Storage, & Preservation

• Packaging depends on drug's final deposition, providing ample protection and economy of space
• Proper storage and preservation are important for maintaining high quality
• Store all drugs in well-closed, filled containers in waterproof, fireproof, rodent-proof premises
• Protect drugs from insects and molds

Insect Attack Prevention

• Drying the drug thoroughly or exposing the drug to 65 degrees temperature
• Fumigation using methyl bromide, Carbon disulfide, HCN
• Adding chloroform and carbon tetrachloride drops

Evaluation of Crude Drugs

• Ensures drug identity, quality, and purity

Evaluation Methods

• Organoleptic Evaluation: Analyzes color, odor, taste, size, shape, and texture
• Microscopic Evaluation: Identifies small crude/powdered herb fragments and adulterants, identifies plant tissue features
• Chemical Evaluation: Qualitative/quantitative chemical tests, assays, instrumental analysis
• Physical Evaluation: Determines crude drug's physical properties
• Biological Evaluation: Assesses plant/extract's pharmacological activity, potency, and toxicity

Drugs Assayed Biological Evaluation

• Digitalis is tested using Pigeons
• Glucagon is tested using Cats
• Atropine is tested using Cats
• Oxytocin is tested using Chickens
• Insulin is tested using Rabbits
• Tubocurarine is tested using Rabbits (neck)
• Parathyroid hormone is tested using Dogs

Chemistry of Drugs

• Living organisms: They are biosynthetic labs for food compounds and compounds exerting physiological effects

Constituents

• Has Therapeutic effects
• Inert Constituents: No therapeutic effect (starch, cellulose)
• Active Constituents: Pharmacological effect (secondary metabolites)
• Pharmaceutically Active Constituent: Causes activity, precipitation, or chemical change
• Pharmacologically Active Constituent: Responsible for drug's therapeutic effect

Influencing Factors on Constituents

• Heredity: Results in distinct chemical composition differences, related to secondary metabolites Species with Menthol includes
• Mentha pipereta
• Mentha arvensis
• Ontogeny: Plays a role in nature of active constituent; young or old stage (e.g., Cannabis sativa where Cannabinol is mature; Cannabidiol is young)
• Environment: Produces variations in secondary plant constituents

General Classes of Chemical Constituents

• Carbohydrates
• Glycosides & Tannins
• Lipids
• Volatile Oils
• Resins & Resin Combinations
• Steroids
• Alkaloids
• Peptide Hormones
• Enzymes & Other Proteins
• Vitamins
• Antibiotics
• Biologics
• Herbs and Supplements

Carbohydrates and Related Compounds

• Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, where H and O are in the same proportion as in water (CH2ON)
• These are aldehyde or ketone alcohol containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• It's the first product of electromagnetic energy converted into chemical energy (photosynthesis)
• It's a convenient starting point for discussion of constituents
• Carbohydrates constitute a large proportion of plant biomass, providing rigid cellular frameworks (cellulose/chitin)
• It provides an important food reserve (starch in plants, glycogen in animals)
• It also serves as a building block of other compounds or secondary metabolites
• In biochemistry, carbohydrates are classified into groups

Carbohydrate Classification

• Carbohydrates are classified depending on the number of sugar molecules (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides) they contain

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed further
• They act as building blocks of carbohydrates
• Classified by the number of carbon atoms with
• Bioses/Dioses contains 2 C atoms
• Trioses contains 3 C atoms (phosphoric ester form)
• Tetroses contain 4 C atoms (e.g., Erythrose & Threose)
• Pentoses contain 5 C atoms produced from hydrolysis of polysaccharides like hemicellulose, mucilage, and gums
• Ribose and xylose are examples
• Hexoses contain 6 C atoms, being abundant carbohydrates (Glucose, mannose, galactose, fructose, sorbose)
• Hexoses are also produced by the hydrolysis of polysaccharides like starch and inulin
• Heptoses contain 7 C atoms, important in photosynthesis and glucose metabolism

Disaccharides

• They are composed of 2 monosaccharide units through dehydration synthesis
• Upon hydrolysis they yield two molecules to monosaccharides
• Sucrose (table sugar) yields Glucose + Fructose
• Maltose (malt sugar) yields Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose (milk sugar) yields Glucose + Galactose

Trisaccharides

• These liberate three molecules of monosaccharides upon hydrolysis
• Raffinose yields Fructose + Galactose + Glucose
• Gentianose yields Fructose + Glucose + Glucose

Tetrasaccharides

• These yield 4 molecules of monosaccharides like stachyose (in manna plant)

Polysaccharides

• Complex high molecular weight polymers of monosaccharides, yielding an indefinite number of monosaccharides (glycans) upon hydrolysis
• Homoglycans contain only 1 type of monosaccharide (starch, inulin, cellulose, chitin)
• Heteroglycans contain more than 1 type of monosaccharides (D-glucose, D-mannose)

Tests for Carbohydrates

• Reduction of Fehling's solution is used for testing for the presence of carbohydrates
• Result of Reduction of Fehling's solution: Solution of CHO yields (+) brick red ppt
• Molisch Test is used for soluble and insoluble carbohydrates
• Result of Molisch Test: Alpha-naphthol + conc. H2SO4 + CHO yields (+) purple ring
• Osazone Formation involves Phenylhydrazine HCl solution + Sodium acetate + Acetic acid + CHO yields (+) yellow crystals
• Osazone is sugar derivatives formed when heating sugar solution with Phenylhydrazine HCl solution + Sodium acetate + Acetic acid
• Resorcinol Test for Ketones (Seliwanoff's/Selivanoff's Test): Crystal resorcinol + CHO + HCl yields (+) rose color
• Test for Pentoses (Bial's Test): HCI + Phloroglucinol yields (+) red color
• Test for Deoxysugar (Keller-Killiani Test): Deoxysugar + Acetic acid + Ferric chloride yields (+) reddish-brown to blue

Furfural Test

• It contains CHO+ Phosphoric acid yields (+) pink/red stain in reagent paper

Anthrone Test

• Detects carbohydrates, yielding blue/green solution

Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates

• Involves CO2 + H2O to produce Sugars + O2 (Green plants)
• Summarized as: 6 CO2 + 12 H2O + (energy) yields C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H20
• Photosynthesis is Biochemical process converting light energy into chemical energy
• The carbohydrate precursor is carbon dioxide and water
• The fructose-6-phosphate is converted to glucose-1-phosphate then to UDP-glucose using UTP or uridine triphosphate
• Forming UDP-glucose will react with fructose-6-phosphate to form sucrose
• UDP-glucose directly forms sucrose.

Common Sugars/Drugs

• Monosaccharides: Xylose Glucose Fructose Galactose
• Disaccharides: Sucrose Maltose Lactose
• Polysaccharides: Starch Glycogen Dextran Inulin Cellulose Gum & Mucilage

Xylose (D-Xylose) (Wood Sugar)

• Pentose obtained by boiling corn cobs, straw or materials with dilute acids used to hydrolyze the xylan polymer
• Normally absorbed from small intestine but significantly metabolized
• It can be used as a diagnostic aid for intestinal malabsorption
• If absorbed, not metabolized, yielding ethanol and xylitol

Glucose (Dextrose) (Blood Sugar) (Physiologic Sugar)

• Occurs naturally in grapes, other fruits
• Aldo hexose (aldehyde at Carbon 1)
• Production involves controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
• It is used as a nutrient, and pharmaceutical necessities
• Involves a positive result for Benedict's Test to test the presence of reducing sugars
• Most abundant form: -D-Glucose

Glucose Used as Pharmaceutical Necessities

• Dextrose excipient: Crystalline dextrose monohydrate (less rigorous purification)
• Liquid glucose: Product of incomplete acid hydrolysis of starch
• Dextrates: A mixture of saccharides >93% and rigorously purified as nutrition

Fructose (D-Fructose) (Levulose) (Fruit Sugar)

• Ketone sugar occurring in sweet fruits/honeys
• Sweetest sugar, and is inverted from sucrose, and hydrolyzed Inulin
• Ketone in C-2
• Test reducing sugar with benedict tests & selivanoff tests
• It can be used as food for diabetics/infants

Galactose (Brain Sugar)

• Aldohexose rapidly absorbed from the small intestine
• It is a C-4 epimer of glucose and it is found in body/nerve fibers (galactoside) & Plant (hydrolysis of milk Sugar)
• This helps yield 1 glucose and 1 galactose

Sucrose (Saccarum) (Sugar) (Table Sugar)

• Sugar is obtained from Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) & Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) & Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
• Only disaccharide existing free state/non-reducing because of no free-aldehyde/ketone/carbonyl

Production: Sugar cane

• Crush with iron rollers, boil with lime (neutralize/coagulate), filter/decolorize (sulfur dioxide), concentrate and crystallize

Production: Sugar beet

• Consists of small limp slivers= cosets

Production: Sugar maple

• Process is tapping. Sap tapped(trunk), collects(basin), 98% water removal = 2% maple syrup with a FINAL PRODUCT: 67% sugar; 33% Water

Uses of Sucrose includes

• Functions as a preservative
• Functions as a Sweetening agent
• It functions as a Demulcent
• It functions as a coating agent
• It functions in the production of syrups
• It helps retard the oxidation process

By product Molasses

• Residual, dark syrup (crystals no longer obtainable) Extensively used food animal feed, ethyl alcohol sweets

By product Invert sugar

• Dark, sweet mixture resulted to overheated sucrose
• Obtaining sucrose requires VERY crucial heat

Maltose (Malt Sugar) (Maltobiose)

• It consists of two glucose molecules (a-(1,4') glycosidic bond) Produced during barley germination (Hordeum vulgare)
• A major degradation product of starch as it is a reducing sugar

Other sugar types yielding 2 glucose molecules

• Trehalose
• Cellobiose

Lactose (Milk Sugar)

• Reducing sugar that yields glucose and galactose after hydrolysis It is sourced from cow's milk (Bos taurus) whey from cheese production

Uses of Lactose

• The use of Lactose in Pharmaceuticals helps in tablet dilution
• It is also sugar in infant feeding because it helps establish gut flora (Lactobacillus)

Dairy Products

• Butter
• Cream
• Buttermilk
• Skimmed milk
• Coagulum or Coagulate
• Whey
• Cheese

Milk Preparations

• Condensed milk (partial evaporation then sterilization)
• Malted milk evaporated with malt extract
• Kumyss (fermented/ spoiled milk)

Lactulose

• Synthesized by alkaline rearrangement, yields fructose & galactose Hydrolyzed to acetic & lactic causing irritation/ catharsis

Uses

• It aids in convulsion and can be indicated for MI patients to prevent straining

Drugs that are Metabolitically Related to Sugars

• Product of glycolytic/oxidative Metabolism that aids or has relation to sugars which include cherry juice and plant acids

Cherry Juice

• It is the liquid expressed from fresh ripe fruit (Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae)) It contains no less than 1% malic acid, preserved with benzoic to stand for a clear solution (30 mins)

Plant acids

• Citric acid Tricarboxylic aids the acidity of sugar and lemon, lime and pineapple, used in buffer/ effervescent formula
• Ingredients includes Citric + bicarbonate=sticky
• Tartaric bicarbonate = brittle
• Lactic acids result to sugar fermentation/synthetically, in infant/female use
• Tartaric acid from a by product of wine substitutes citric or helps differentiate the two tests

Alcohol (Ethanol)

• Has 92.3% by weight equals 94.6% Ethanol = 15.56 C.

Preparations

• Includes diluted(water-alcohol), extracted fermentation product of wine/rum(molasses) and Whisky(grain) and Brandy()
• Includes low stimulant dose or High Depressant

Mannitol -( D--mannitol)

• Hexahydric resulting reduction Mannose, and isolated Mannan, derived form Fraxinus Fornus Oleaceae
• Is Dose dependent to small laxative 200mg and large dirueticose 50mg to 100g

Sorbitol

• D-Glucitol Hexitor from ripe berries mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia Rosaceae

Uses includes

• Ingrediant toothpaste , chewing either or

Small use includes

• Laxative with

Large Use includes

• Combination with Matalic Irrigation in Urologic

Has properties to

• Has the organoleptic evaluations of half as sweet sucrosing
• Is diagnostic for both that are similar just not as common as Mannital
• Has a Humectant that can Retain Molstiure and both are diagnostic tools for body
• Can metabolized and use as alteratvie bulks

Polysoccharide Including Drugs

• Includes the Amylose for starches, and a amylopectin
• Amylopectin is insoluble, only swells water
• Starches and other contain Granles and corns
• Manihot Esulenta: Philip source as escuelnta is source of cassavas
• Amylose beta, and amylopection alpha
• Has solubility to wate- is amylose and the is amylopection water
• Linesrly and banchly water forms from the amyloose glyscoedic bonds

Amyloos contains

• Alpha 1.4 and alhp 1.6
• 300 range gluoco
• Ratio 25,
• Blue complex

Enzymes Includes

Amyalses which helps

• Includes Pancreatic which helps amyis saliva mouth digestion degrations

The preparation includes starch

Pre-Gelatzed startch

• Uses: Table excipitant binders
• Soidom Starches*:
• Synthetic of soduim
• Has distenigratins , super agent
• Hepestarch
• Made in units to units of hyperoxy USE: Expanede for patients , for shock

Summary Starch

• For Excpients use to form dilurent tablet binds disintegrat

Inlin for hydroaus

• Beta Bonds
• Uses for kidney evaltuon improves digestion
• Includes glykoside
• Includes muciges
• Gums are naturally hydrolic plants ,
• Transclent apperance that has higher plans

Gums and Mucilliges

• Is heteroglycaids, which are naturally hydrodolics classified as ananolic
• Protective Organleptiv
• Etreogemios
• Commercial includes
• Plant, marine
• Seeds which has gurning
• Plant exudates are traditional source - The consist of calcuim magnesium 1.Includes Aracain: 212% to15% of water and occuldimg 3 clasified acitve which helps prevent perperstion

Use pharmaceutical necessie-

• Uses 1 Emusifiy 2 Demuicent

3. 5% of alchol can stable and alchols can cause and precitipates.

Plant 2Tragenth

• Is gummy exudes Astragilus Guminefroes Lugiminose
• Conitstes 30/ or parts Trachantin

##Bassim

Vermifon Includes

• Inujry worms , in coil, browns yellowi

Tragencath Soorts

• Imparred Yellow brwons

Ribbom flake

• Cut knives , in high gradesm commm

The chemcials testing requires

• Solution tracaght boiled with acid doest have red test
• Doest produce red.
• Soluction boiled will produce few drops

Marine Include

• aliga can produce aligin
• seaweeds includes B rown that results acia

Uses the stabilze toner

• Soidaum alginate
• Charbioyate extated by dilution.

Uses Supsendigs

• Algeres uses
• 70 to 80 from japam
• Dried Hydrohopic- colidal subatces

Sededs

• 1 pysillucem
• 2cydoioum
• Guar

Locust Bea

• Endorse Ceratous Squat - has statbile binders and thickeneners and adsobant

Mixcrobial Used

Xanthan Gum

• action of cpmosits is

Platns -Petocin

Is derived from the Greek work and constites

• A group for the polyasch rides which located the middle lamina. , extracted diultye the apple rind
• The hydrolloid consiting 3 forms 1.Forms

2. Urupe -Protype
3. The uses the emulsion gentelz and thickener .Kaolepectate also includes Hemostatis

• Has to store be as ethon.