Pharmaceutical Microbiology Chapter 1

History of Microbiology

• John Tyndall showed that open broth tubes were free of bacteria when air was free of dust.
• Louis Pasteur is known as the Father of Microbiology.
• Lord Lister demonstrated the antiseptic method.
• Edward Jenner discovered the small pox vaccine.
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is known as the Father of Medical Microbiology.

Microscope

• In a fluorescent microscope, the objective lens is made of polythene.
• The resolution power of the compound microscope is 0.2 micron.

Prokaryotic Organism

• Prokaryotic organisms are characterized by the absence of nuclear envelope.

Antiseptic Method

• Lord Lister introduced the antiseptic method.

Microbiology

• Plasmids are responsible for motility.
• Endotoxin is present in the lipopolysaccharide of gram-negative bacteria.
• Gram-negative bacteria have a thin cell wall.
• Fimbriae are used for cell attachment.
• Catalase production is negative in Streptococcus.

Gram Staining

• Crystal violet is the primary stain of Gram's method.
• Gram's decolouriser is alcohol.
• Gram-positive bacteria stain purple, while gram-negative bacteria stain pink.
• The order of reagents used in the Gram stain is crystal violet, iodine, decolorizer, and safranin.

Sterilization and Disinfection

• Autoclave is used to sterilize heat-stable materials.
• Membrane filtration is used to sterilize heat-labile solutions.
• The D value is the time required to kill 90% of the microorganisms in a sample at a specific temperature.
• Pasteurization is used to preserve food, and it involves heating at 63°C for 30 minutes.
• Dry heat sterilization is used to sterilize glass pipettes.
• Ionizing radiation is used to sterilize and disinfect.
• Sterilization is the process of making an object free from living organisms, including bacteria, fungal spores, and viruses.

Disinfectants

• Cationic detergents act by disrupting microbial membranes.
• Silver nitrate and mercuric chloride are disinfectants containing heavy metals.
• Ethylene oxide is a sterilant that can be used to sterilize.
• Bactericidal concentration of phenol is 1%.
• Iodophores are a mixture of iodine and surface active agents.
• Halogens are commonly used as general antiseptics to treat cuts and scratches.

Virology

• For a virus to replicate, the genome must be released in the cytoplasm.### Viruses
• Viruses have been successfully grown in pure cultures in test tubes.
• All viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites.
• All viruses have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
• Viruses probably arose from small fragments of cellular chromosomes.
• The size of viruses is usually measured in nanometers.

Viral Capsid

• The function of a viral capsid is to provide protection against the viral genome from physical and enzymatic destruction.
• It also provides binding sites that enable the virus to attach to specific receptor sites on the host cell.

Fungi

• Fungi that lack partitions (septa) are called coenocytic.
• Dimorphic fungi exhibit yeast-like growth at human body temperatures and mold-like growth at room temperature.
• Slime molds produce motile sexual and asexual spores.
• Fungi secrete extracellular enzymes to break down nutrients.
• Fungi in the division Deuteromycota are characterized by the fact that a method of sexual reproduction has not been identified.
• Black bread molds produce zygospores.

Laboratory Safety

• The desire to maintain a safe laboratory environment begins with prevention.
• When a chemical splashes in the eye, rinse for 15 minutes.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) such as safety glasses, lab coats, and gloves are frequently used.
• Chemical, reagents, or broth cultures should not be pipetted by mouth.
• Good work practices include confining long hair and loose clothing, and not using damaged equipment and glassware.

Microbiological Assay

• The name of the procedure performed under sterile conditions to eliminate contamination in hopes to obtain a pure culture of one type of microorganism is aseptic technique.
• After a biohazard spill, the area must sit for 30 minutes before cleaning.
• Media is needed as a source of nutrient for the growth and reproduction of microbes.
• To prevent the contamination of microscopes and surrounding areas, disinfect/clean used slides with 70% ethanol and lens paper.

Antibiotics

• Bacteriostatic antibiotics stop bacteria from growing without killing them.
• One level assay of antibiotics is used to determine concentration.
• Two level assay of antibiotics is used to determine potency.

Clean Room Technology

• Cleanrooms maintain particulate-free air through the use of HEPA filters.
• Cleanrooms are classified by how clean the air is.
• A cleanroom is a controlled environment that has a low level of airborne microbes.
• Following is the lowest level of cleanroom standards: ISO 9.

Microbiological Assay (continued)

• Zone of inhibition measured in microbiological assay of antibiotics.
• Zone of growth measured in microbiological assay of vitamins.
• Median concentration in microbial assay is 1 µg/ml.
• Disadvantage of Agar diffusion method except dilution.

Food Processing Technology

• Most spoilage bacteria grow at neutral pH.### Food Processing Technology
• Acetic acid, Tartaric acid, Citric acid, and Maleic acid are types of acids used in food processing.
• Salmonella, E. coli, Staphylococcus, and Cyano bacteria are types of bacteria that can be present in raw or undercooked meat, eggs, seafood, and unpasteurized milk.
• Milk and curry left over can spoil at room temperature, high temperature, very low temperature, or constant temperature.

Microbiology

• Spoilage in food can be prevented or delayed by hindering the activity of micro-organisms, physical removal of dust, or cleaning the environment.
• Aerobic food spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms can be suppressed by removing nutrients from food or adding antibodies.
• In spore-forming bacteria, maximum resistance occurs at pH 4, 5, 6, or 7.
• Any change that renders food unfit for human consumption is called deterioration or spoilage.

Food Intoxication

• Food intoxication occurs through the ingestion of toxins produced by microorganisms, toxin-producing additives, chemical interaction, or toxins produced by the body.
• Clostridium Botulinum is a type of bacteria that can cause food intoxication.

Microorganisms

• Yeast is used for alcoholic fermentation, and Saccharomyces Cerevisiae is a type of yeast used for this process.
• CO2 concentration required for culturing animal cells is between 2-5% or 1-10%.
• The human fibroblast is a classical example of stable primary cell lines.
• pH of culture medium is initially controlled by the presence of CO2, bicarbonate buffer, or addition of bases.

Cell Culture

• In animal cell culture, transformation means uptake of new genetic material, phenotypic modifications of cells in culture, increased division of the cell, or release of genetic information.
• Cells that have undergone transformation frequently become anchorage independent or anchorage dependent.
• Lactic acid, Creatine phosphate, ATP, and Glucose are sources of energy in active muscle cells.

Microbiology History

• The history of microbiology involves the study of bacteria, microscopy, and staining techniques.
• Sterilization and disinfectant methods are used to control microorganisms.
• Study of viruses, fungi, and bacteria involves understanding their growth curves, staining techniques, and sterilization methods.

Aseptic Area Design

• Designing an aseptic area involves understanding general aspects of environmental cleanliness.
• Assessment of a new antibiotic involves understanding its effects on microorganisms.

Spoilage

• Types of spoilage include physical, chemical, and microbiological spoilage.

Animal Cell Culture

• Growth of animal cells in culture involves understanding the constituents of culture medium, pH control, and sources of energy for active muscle cells.

Test your knowledge on Pharmaceutical Microbiology with this quiz based on Dr. Rajeshkumar's course. Questions cover various topics related to microbiology in pharmaceuticals.