Perception: Exposure and Attention

Definition of Perception

• Perception is the process by which stimuli are perceived and transformed into information through a series of activities

Stages of Perception

• Exposure
• Attention
• Interpretation

Hierarchy of Effects

• Exposure leads to attention, which leads to memory, which forms attitudes, driving intentions and ultimately purchases

Exposure

• Exposure happens when a stimulus is present in a person's environment within range of sensory receptors
• Measurement of this is done via impressions, ratings, views, and unique visitors

Attention

• Attention occurs when a stimulus activates one or more sensory receptor nerves
• Sensations travel to the brain for processing
• The level of attention may vary by the individual and situation

Stimulus Factors Affecting Attention

• Size
• Intensity
• Attractive visuals
• Color and movement
• Position
• Isolation
• Format
• Contrast and expectations
• Interestingness
• Information quantity

Individual Factors Affecting Attention

• Motivation
• Ability

Situational Factors Affecting Attention

• These include environmental stimuli other than the focal stimulus
• These can also include temporary individual characteristics induced by the environment
• Time pressures or crowded stores can be situational factors
• Clutter and program/magazine involvement are further examples

Top-Down Attentional Processes

• Attentional processes are goal-driven (gorilla video)
• These processes are driven by motivational factors, leading to attentional blindness and focused attention
• Focusing too intensely on something might cause other factors to be missed
• Consumer goals, expectations, and emotions prevent them from perceiving things that don't fit those goals and expectations, which is known as motivated cognition

Influences on Attention

• Expectations (top-down) and physical perception (bottom-up) interact to influence attention

Non-Focused Attention

• Stimuli can be attended to without deliberate or conscious focus
• Recognition and attitudes can form from mere exposure, even without attention

Brain Lateralization

• The left eye sends info to the right side of the brain, and the right eye to the left side
• Ads can be placed to take advantage of non-focused attention and brain lateralization

Subliminal Stimuli

• Subliminal stimuli can influence behavior without conscious awareness
• Affective reactions can be unconscious and change preferences directly
• This can influence intentions to purchase
• Stores using sirens only kids can hear or stores with positive imagery are examples

Measuring Attention

• Eye tracking is a way to measure attention

Memory

• Memory is the total accumulation of prior learning experiences
• It consists of two interrelated components

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory is the portion of total memory currently activated or in use
• It involves verbal and imagery manipulation, is also referred to as Working Memory
• Thinking is analogous to short term memory, which is active and dynamic
• Short-term memory has a limited capacity
• The capacity depends on factors like age, attention and the type of information presented
• Can process words and images

Chunking

• Chunking groups smaller bits of information into meaningful units
• The ability to retain information decreases as the chunk becomes more complex

Dual Coding

• Dual coding is an aspect of short term memory

Types of Processing

• Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of information
• Elaborative activities use previously stored experiences and attitudes to interpret info in working memory

Interpretation

• Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to sensations
• Cognitive interpretation places stimuli into existing categories of meaning
• Affective interpretation is an emotional or feeling response triggered by a stimulus

Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory has unlimited, permanent storage
• Types include: Episodic, Semantic, Procedural, General Knowledge, and Flashbulb memory

Episodic Memory

• Episodic memory is memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated
• Remembering Thanksgiving 2022 is an example

Semantic Memory

• Semantic memory is basic knowledge and feelings an individual has about a concept

Flashbulb Memory

• Flashbulb memory is an acute memory for surprising and novel events that’s vividly detailed and enduring over time

Schemas and Scripts

• Schemas are patterns of associations around a concept and are also known as schematic memory or knowledge structure
• They involve all associations directly or indirectly to a brand
• Concepts, events, and feelings are stored in nodes that are directly or indirectly associated with each other
• Scripts are memories of how an action sequence should occur
• Scripts are necessary for consumers to shop effectively

Characteristics of Memory

• Associative network model of memory exists

Learning Examples

• Accretion, tuning, and restructuring are all examples of types of learning in marketing

Conditioning

• Role of involvement affects consumer purchasing

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning uses established relationship between one stimulus and response to bring about learning of the same response to a different stimulus

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning involves rewarding desirable behaviors, like brand purchases, with positive outcomes that reinforce the behavior

Cognitive Learning

• Cognitive learning involves interpreting information and creating new knowledge or meaning via brand schemas and associations

Ways of Adding Knowledge

• There are 3 ways of adding knowledge to schemas: accretion, tuning, and restructuring

Extinction

• Extinction is forgetting in conditioned learning because the desired response declines if learning isn't reinforced

Retrieval Failure

• Retrieval failure is forgetting in cognitive learning because information in long-term memory can't be accessed

Factors Influencing Forgetting

• Response environment plays a role by using Encoding and retrieval cues
• Strength of learning includes Importance, Message Involvement, Mood, Reinforcement, Repetition, and Dual Coding
• Memory inference includes any difficulties retrieving a specific piece of info because other related info interferes

Dual Coding

• Storing information in different ways creates more pathways for retrieval
• Combining words and visuals helps students understand information better, reducing competitive interference

What Marketers Can Do

• Marketers can avoid competing advertising, strengthen initial learning, reduce similarity to competing ads, and provide external retrieval cues

Brand Equity Associations

• Attitudinal loyalty
• Perceived quality
• Brand associations
• Awareness
• Recall versus Recognition

Recall vs Recognition

• Recall has elaboration and strong links
• Recognition uses repetition

Affective Responses

• Affect is feeling responses to stimuli
• Types of affective responses include emotion, indicators, and feelings

Cognition

• Cognition is a mental thinking response to stimulus
• Affective and cognitive systems are interconnected

The Affective System

• Largely reactive
• Little direct control
• Can responds to any type of stimulus
• Influences cognition

Consequences of Negative Affect

• Negative affect, like sadness or disgust, can lead to posting pauses and interest
• Extreme content = meaningful social interaction

Measuring Affective Responses

• Arousal and valence (positive or negative emotions)
• Solution is to supplement self reports with biometric measures
• Ambient color affects arousal and behavior as well

Affective and Cognitive Systems

• Affective and cognitive systems determine our attitudes
• Affective concerns emotions or feelings about specific attributes
• Cognitive concerns beliefs about specific attributes

Motives

• Provide reasons for behavior
• Needs are part of Maslow's hierarchy

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• All humans have similar sets of motives through genetics and social interaction
• Some motives are more basic/critical than others
• Basic motives must be satisfied at a minimum level before other motives
• As basic motives are satisfied, the more advanced motives come into play
• Wants are socially learned ways of satisfying needs

McGuire's List

• This is a list of psychological motives
• It includes cognitive preservation, cognitive growth, affective preservation, and affective growth motives

Types of Motives

• Manifest: known motives
• Latent: hidden motives
• Projective techniques can uncover unconscious reasons for buying things via association, completion, and construction

Ethnographies in Research

• Ethnographies can be used to uncover motives through participant observation

Attitudes

• Attitudes are enduring organizations of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of our environment
• Attitudes are summary judgements of likes or dislikes, representing an overall orientation toward an object
• From an affective standpoint, attitudes are a person's overall evaluation of a concept

Components of Attitude

• Attitudes are characterized by valence and can be created through affective and cognitive systems

Affective System

• Affective involves low involvement and is automatic/non-conscious through conditioning cues that create positive affect to ad

Cognitive System

• Cognitive system involves high involvement
• Attitudes are formed when consumers combine knowledge, meanings, or beliefs
• There are 4 basic strategies for cognitive route

Attitudes and Marketing

• The multiattribute attitude model describes how marketers can improve attitudes toward their brand
• It involves salient beliefs, strength of salient beliefs, and evaluation

Elaboration Likelihood Model

• A model that considers both the central and peripheral routes

Persuasion

• The central route is more effective than the peripheral route in persuading people
• Strong central cues should be used

Intentions

• Intentions can predict behavior, somewhat

Factors Reducing Influence on Intentions

• Time
• Different levels of specificity
• Unforeseen environmental events
• Unforeseen situational context
• Degree of voluntary control
• Stability of intentions
• New information

Lifestyle

• Lifestyle is how a person lives and enacts their self-concept which is determined by past experiences, innate characteristics, and current situation
• It's also measured by: Psychographics, attitudes, values, activities, interests, demographics, media, patterns, usage and rates