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Questions and Answers
What aspect of disease does pathogenesis specifically refer to?
Which term is used when the cause of a disease is unknown?
What is the main distinction between symptoms and signs of a disease?
Which of the following is a form of cell injury that cannot be reversed?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the five groups that classify the causes of cell injury?
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What type of changes are referred to as gross morphologic changes?
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What does the term 'multifactorial disease' mean?
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During which period do pathogenetic mechanisms occur?
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What is the primary consequence of uncontrolled free radical production in cells?
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Which of the following best describes hypoxia?
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What effect does hypoxia have on cellular metabolism?
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How does calcium typically function within cells?
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What can lead to disruptions in intracellular calcium homeostasis?
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What happens to cellular pH during hypoxia?
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What is a common outcome of free radical damage to DNA?
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Which statement about hypoxia is false?
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What characterizes dry gangrene?
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How does wet gangrene differ from dry gangrene?
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What causes gas gangrene?
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What occurs during the process of gas gangrene?
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What can result if systemic symptoms of wet gangrene become severe?
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What initiates the mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway of apoptosis?
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Which of the following describes necrosis?
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What role does apoptosis play in cellular health?
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Which of the following features distinguishes necrosis from apoptosis?
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Which event occurs during apoptosis regarding the nucleus?
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In what way do apoptosis and necrosis responses differ concerning adjacent tissues?
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What type of cell death is primarily associated with cytotoxic T lymphocytes?
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Which condition is least likely related to the mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway of apoptosis?
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What primarily causes coagulative necrosis?
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Which organs are primarily affected by coagulative necrosis?
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What characterizes liquefactive necrosis in the brain?
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What is the appearance of tissue affected by caseous necrosis?
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What process is involved in fat necrosis?
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What is the result of saponification seen in fat necrosis?
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Which type of necrosis is commonly associated with tuberculosis?
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What is a common cause of liquefactive necrosis involving bacterial infection?
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Study Notes
Pathophysiology
- The study of functional changes in the body due to disease development.
- Focuses on four aspects of disease:
- Etiology: cause of disease
- Pathogenesis: mechanism of disease development
- Morphologic changes: structural alterations in cells/tissues
- Functional derangements and Clinical significance: signs and symptoms
Etiology
- Diseases can be genetic, acquired, idiopathic, or multifactorial.
- Acquired diseases are caused by factors like infection, nutrition, chemicals, physical agents, etc.
- Idiopathic diseases have unknown causes.
- Multifactorial diseases are caused by both genetic and acquired factors.
- Iatrogenic diseases are caused by medical treatment, usually due to errors in diagnosis or treatment.
Pathogenesis
- The mechanism by which causative agents produce pathological and clinical responses.
- Occur during the incubation period.
Morphologic Changes
- Structural alterations in cells/tissues.
- Gross morphologic changes are visible to the naked eye.
- Microscopic changes require a microscope.
Functional Derangements and Clinical Significance
- Represented by signs and symptoms.
- Symptoms are subjective feelings experienced by the patient.
- Signs are objective observations by the doctor.
Cell Injury
- Cells maintain a narrow range of physiologic parameters for optimal function.
- Stress or stimuli can cause adaptation to achieve a new steady state, preserving viability and function.
- Excessive stress can lead to irreversible cell injury or death.
Causes of Cell Injury
- Classified into five groups:
- Physical agents
- Radiation injury
- Chemical injury
- Biologic agents
- Nutritional imbalances
Mechanisms of Cell Injury
- Free radical formation:
- Highly reactive chemical species (reactive oxygen species).
- Unstable radicals react with cellular constituents, causing damage to membranes, proteins, enzymes, and DNA.
- Hypoxia and ATP depletion:
- Hypoxia (lack of oxygen) is the most common cause of cell injury.
- Can result from ischemia, low oxygen in air, hemoglobin dysfunction, decreased red blood cell production, or respiratory/cardiovascular diseases.
- Leads to anaerobic metabolism, glycogen depletion, and decreased pH.
- Ultimately leads to ATP depletion.
- Disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis
- Calcium functions as a messenger for enzyme release.
- Ischemia and toxins increase cytosolic calcium levels.
- Increased calcium activates enzymes with damaging effects.
- Can trigger apoptotic cell death.
Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death, initiated by two pathways:
- Mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway: triggered by loss of survival signals, DNA damage, or misfolded proteins.
- Death receptor (extrinsic) pathway: elimination of self-reactive lymphocytes and targeted cell death by cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
Necrosis
- Unregulated death of cell groups within a living body.
- Involves enzymatic digestion, swelling, membrane loss, and inflammation.
- Interferes with tissue regeneration.
Types of Necrosis
- Coagulative necrosis:
- Occurs in kidneys, heart, and adrenal glands.
- Caused by hypoxia or chemical injury.
- Protein denaturation makes tissue firm and opaque.
- Liquefactive necrosis:
- Occurs in neurons and glial cells of the brain.
- Cells digested by their own hydrolases, forming cysts.
- Also caused by bacterial infections, with hydrolases released from neutrophils.
- Caseous necrosis:
- Occurs in tuberculous infections.
- Combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis.
- Tissue appears soft, granular, and cheese-like.
- Fat necrosis:
- Occurs in breast, pancreas, and abdomen.
- Caused by lipases breaking down triglycerides, releasing free fatty acids that combine with calcium, magnesium, and sodium to form soaps (saponification).
- Tissue appears opaque and chalk-white.
- Gangrenous necrosis:
- Result of severe hypoxic injury caused by arteriosclerosis or blockage of major arteries.
- Classified as dry, wet, or gas gangrene.
- Dry gangrene: coagulative necrosis, skin is dry, wrinkled, and dark brown/black.
- Wet gangrene: bacterial invasion and liquefactive necrosis, tissue is cold, swollen, black, and foul-smelling.
- Gas gangrene: caused by Clostridium infections, producing enzymes and toxins that destroy tissue and form gas bubbles in muscle cells.
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Description
Test your understanding of pathophysiology with this quiz focusing on the study of functional changes in the body due to diseases. Explore key concepts such as etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes, and their clinical significance. Ideal for students in healthcare and medical fields.