Pathology Overview Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of the field of pathology?

Studying patient psychological responses

Understanding the cause and changes in disease (correct)

Analyzing statistical health data

Development of therapeutic drugs

Which of the following defines hyperplasia?

Cell death

Decrease in cell size

Increase in cell number (correct)

Increase in cell size

What is the definition of cellular adaptation?

A stable state where a cell can function and maintain viability despite stress. (correct)

The process by which cells permanently change their structure.

An irreversible condition caused by environmental toxins.

A state of cell death with complete loss of function.

Which process is considered a response of cells to injury?

Cell adaptation Signup and view all the answers

Which type of adaptive response involves an increase in cell number?

Hyperplasia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a division of pathology?

General pathology Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe the study of the gross and microscopic changes in cells due to disease?

Morphology Signup and view all the answers

What fundamental imbalance leads to atrophy?

Decrease in protein synthesis with increased degradation. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can be a physiological cause of atrophy?

Thymic involution Signup and view all the answers

What describes systemic pathology?

Specific responses of specialized organs Signup and view all the answers

What does the natural history of a disease include?

Origin, progression, and outcome of the disease Signup and view all the answers

In terms of cellular mechanisms, which is NOT involved in the process of atrophy?

Cellular regeneration Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly distinguishes hypertrophy from hyperplasia?

Hypertrophy involves increased cell size; hyperplasia involves increased cell number. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to cells during atrophy?

They remain alive but decrease in size and function. Signup and view all the answers

What can trigger pathological adaptation in cells?

Hormones released by tumors. Signup and view all the answers

What is metaplasia?

Transformation of one type of epithelium to another. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when the adaptive capacity of cells is exceeded?

Cell injury leads to cell death Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cell injury is characterized by the death of cells within viable organs?

Necrosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of hypoxia?

Ischemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following causes of cell injury is related to oxygen deficiency?

Ischemia Signup and view all the answers

What type of cell death is considered programmed?

Apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can lead to cellular senescence?

Intrinsic aging Signup and view all the answers

Which cause of cell injury involves antigen-antibody reactions that may lead to autoimmune disorders?

Immunological reactions Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of reversible cell injury?

Potential recovery upon stimulus removal Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of mitochondrial damage?

Decreased ATP production Signup and view all the answers

What initiates apoptosis following mitochondrial damage?

Loss of the proton gradient Signup and view all the answers

What occurs as a result of hypoxia or ischemia?

Decreased oxidative respiration Signup and view all the answers

What happens to intracellular sodium levels when there is a loss of ATP-dependent Na/K pump activity?

Increased intracellular sodium Signup and view all the answers

What type of injury results from the restoration of blood supply after ischemia?

Ischemia/reperfusion injury Signup and view all the answers

What occurs as a result of increased intracellular osmolarity during cellular injury?

Acute cellular swelling Signup and view all the answers

Which process leads to the accumulation of lactic acid due to energy deficit?

Anaerobic glycolysis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following changes can become irreversible if the stimulus continues?

ATP depletion consequences Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of caspases in apoptosis?

To signal commitment to apoptotic cell death Signup and view all the answers

Which type of caspases are responsible for the structural degradation of the cells?

Effecters Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does BCL-2 primarily focus on regarding apoptosis?

Stabilizing mitochondrial membrane Signup and view all the answers

What effect does cytochrome-C have on apoptotic signaling?

It activates Apaf and effecter caspases Signup and view all the answers

In what condition may apoptosis occur due to mild injurious stimuli?

Mild thermal or radiation exposure Signup and view all the answers

Which group of proteins regulates mitochondrial membrane permeability in apoptosis?

BCL-2 family Signup and view all the answers

What role does Bax/Bad play in apoptosis?

Enhances apoptosis Signup and view all the answers

Apoptosis can be triggered during which of the following physiological processes?

Neuronal development and death Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Pathology Definition

Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of diseases on cells, tissues, and organs.
It aims to understand how changes in structure and function contribute to disease symptoms.

Pathology Divisions

General Pathology: Focuses on the basic cellular and tissue responses to stimuli like injury, inflammation, and repair.
Systemic Pathology: Studies the specific responses of different organs to disease processes, such as heart attacks, brain infarctions, etc.

Etiology

Diseases can have a single cause or multiple etiologic factors.

Pathogenesis

The mechanisms by which the cause of the disease leads to the structural and functional changes in cells, tissues, and organs.

Morphology

The gross and microscopic changes in cells and tissues caused by a disease.

Clinical Symptoms and Signs

The features that lead a patient to seek medical advice.

Natural History

The disease's origin, progression, outcome, and prognosis.
Cell Injury*
Cells can survive and function within a narrow range of physiological parameters.
Adaptation: Cells attempt to achieve a new steady state and preserve viability under stress.
Reversible Injury: Injury can be reversed if the stimulus is removed and the limits are not exceeded.
Irreversible Injury: Leads to cell death, either through necrosis or apoptosis.

Homeostasis and Environment

Cells maintain a balance within their environment to sustain life.
When stress exceeds adaptation capacity, cell injury occurs.

Causes of Cell Injury

Hypoxia (Oxygen Deprivation): Interferes with aerobic respiration, commonly caused by ischemia.
Ischemia: Loss of blood supply due to impaired blood flow or drainage.
Chemicals: Both known toxic agents and normal substrates in abnormal concentrations can cause injury.
Infectious Agents: Bacteria and viruses.
Immunological Reactions: Hypersensitivity reactions and autoimmune disorders.
Genetic Defects: Examples like Down syndrome.
Nutritional Imbalances: Over or under nutrition, including vitamins and minerals.
Physical Agents: Trauma, heat, electricity, and radiation.
Aging: Cellular senescence impairs cell repair and replication.

Cellular Adaptation

Enables cells to maintain function in the face of stress.
Can be physiological (e.g., breast and uterine enlargement during pregnancy) or pathological (e.g., endometrial hyperplasia caused by tumor hormones).

Types of Adaptive Responses

Atrophy: Decrease in cell size due to loss of cell substances, leading to diminished function.
Hypertrophy: Enlargement of individual cells.
Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number.
Metaplasia: Transformation of one cell type into another.

Atrophy

Occurs when cells lose substances and shrink in size.
The cells remain alive, and the process is reversible.
Can involve individual cells or whole organs.

Causes of Atrophy

Physiological:
- Thymic involution (shrinkage of the thymus with age).
- Normal aging.
Pathological:
- Decreased workload (disuse).
- Loss of innervation (denervation).
- Reduced blood supply (ischemia).
- Inadequate nutrition.
- Loss of hormonal stimuli.

Mechanisms of Atrophy

Imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation, with degradation playing a dominant role.
Autophagy: Lysosomes break down cellular components.
Ubiquitin-proteasome Pathway: Degrades cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins.
Cell number can also be reduced by apoptosis.

General Biochemical Mechanisms of Cell Injury

Mitochondrial Damage and ATP Depletion: Damage to mitochondria disrupts ATP production, leading to loss of cell function.
Oxygen Changes: Hypoxia/ischemia impairs oxidative respiration, while free radical formation damages cells through oxidative stress.

Hypoxic/Ischemic Injury

Reduced oxygen supply disrupts cellular function.
Leads to:
- Decreased ATP production.
- Impaired Na/K pump function, causing cell swelling.
- Increased anaerobic glycolysis, leading to lactate accumulation and decreased pH.
- Detachment of ribosomes, impairing protein synthesis.
Reversible if the stimulus is removed, but becomes irreversible if the stress continues.

Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Paradoxical increase in cell death after blood flow is restored.
Attributed to:
- Calcium influx into injured cells.
- Inflammation.
- Free radical production from damaged mitochondria.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, often referred to as "cellular suicide."
Can be physiological or pathological.

Physiological Apoptosis

During embryogenesis: Cell death is a normal part of development.
Hormone-dependent involution: E.g., shedding of the endometrium during menstruation.
Cell deletion in proliferating tissues: E.g., cells in the gastrointestinal tract.
Immune cell death: Destruction of autoreactive T-lymphocytes, elimination of virally infected cells.

Pathological Apoptosis

Mild injurious stimuli: E.g., heat, radiation, toxic chemicals.
Elimination of neoplastic cells in tumors.
Neuron death in diseases: E.g., Alzheimer's disease.

Mechanisms of Apoptosis

Mediated by caspases and mitochondrial proteins like the BCL-2 family.

Caspases

Cysteine proteases that play a key role in apoptosis.
Exist in an inactive form in the cytoplasm.
Classified as initiators or effectors.

Initiator Caspases

Found in specific cell types and commit cells to apoptosis when activated.

Effector Caspases

Present in all cell types.
Break down cellular components and contribute to the characteristic morphology of apoptosis.

Mitochondrial Proteins: BCL-2 Family

Regulate mitochondrial membrane permeability, influencing apoptosis.
Some promote apoptosis (e.g., Bax, Bad), while others inhibit it (e.g., BCL-2, BCL-XL).

BCL-2

Protects against apoptosis by stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane, preventing the release of cytochrome-C, and inhibiting Apaf activation.

Mitochondrial Damage and Apoptosis

Stimuli like toxins, radiation, and anoxia can open the permeability transition pore complex (PTPC) in mitochondria.
This releases cytochrome-C into the cytosol, activating the effector caspases and initiating apoptosis.

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Description

Test your knowledge on the fundamental concepts in pathology, including general and systemic pathology. Explore topics such as etiology, pathogenesis, and clinical symptoms. This quiz provides a comprehensive overview of how diseases affect cells, tissues, and organs.