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Questions and Answers
What is the primary characteristic of prion proteins (PrPsc)?
What is the primary characteristic of prion proteins (PrPsc)?
Which Gram staining characteristic distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria?
Which Gram staining characteristic distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria?
Which type of fungi is most prevalent and often associated with opportunistic infections?
Which type of fungi is most prevalent and often associated with opportunistic infections?
What type of diagnostic techniques uses hematoxylin and eosin staining?
What type of diagnostic techniques uses hematoxylin and eosin staining?
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Which organism is classified under protozoa and is known to cause malaria?
Which organism is classified under protozoa and is known to cause malaria?
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Which route is NOT a common entry point for microbes into the body?
Which route is NOT a common entry point for microbes into the body?
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What distinguishes Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria based on cell wall structure?
What distinguishes Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria based on cell wall structure?
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Which emerging infectious disease is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2?
Which emerging infectious disease is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2?
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What is the role of pili in bacteria?
What is the role of pili in bacteria?
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Which type of bacterial toxins is characterized by being components of the bacterial cell?
Which type of bacterial toxins is characterized by being components of the bacterial cell?
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Which mechanism does NOT contribute to immune evasion in bacteria?
Which mechanism does NOT contribute to immune evasion in bacteria?
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How do some bacteria resist innate immunity?
How do some bacteria resist innate immunity?
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Which of the following describes a direct tissue damage caused by immunity?
Which of the following describes a direct tissue damage caused by immunity?
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Which route of entry is primarily associated with insect or animal bites?
Which route of entry is primarily associated with insect or animal bites?
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What type of bacteria is known to cause destruction of the mucosa in the gastrointestinal tract?
What type of bacteria is known to cause destruction of the mucosa in the gastrointestinal tract?
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Which of the following mechanisms allows for the entry of protozoa into enterocytes?
Which of the following mechanisms allows for the entry of protozoa into enterocytes?
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What is the primary effect of binding and tropism in viral injury mechanisms?
What is the primary effect of binding and tropism in viral injury mechanisms?
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What is a common characteristic of nosocomial infections?
What is a common characteristic of nosocomial infections?
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In which stage of infection mechanisms do toxins lead to tissue damage?
In which stage of infection mechanisms do toxins lead to tissue damage?
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What type of immune response occurs after exposure to a microbe?
What type of immune response occurs after exposure to a microbe?
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What is the primary mechanism by which H. influenzae affects the respiratory system?
What is the primary mechanism by which H. influenzae affects the respiratory system?
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What is a significant complication associated with viral hemorrhagic fevers?
What is a significant complication associated with viral hemorrhagic fevers?
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Which virus primarily causes gingivostomatitis?
Which virus primarily causes gingivostomatitis?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection?
Which of the following statements is true regarding Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection?
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What feature characterizes the lesions caused by Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)?
What feature characterizes the lesions caused by Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)?
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What condition is associated with the reactivation of Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)?
What condition is associated with the reactivation of Varicella-Zoster Virus (VZV)?
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Which of the following is NOT a complication of Cytomegalovirus infection in immunocompromised individuals?
Which of the following is NOT a complication of Cytomegalovirus infection in immunocompromised individuals?
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Which of the following is a primary mode of transmission for Hepatitis B Virus?
Which of the following is a primary mode of transmission for Hepatitis B Virus?
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Which of the following clinical presentations is associated with Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV2)?
Which of the following clinical presentations is associated with Herpes Simplex Virus type 2 (HSV2)?
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What is the primary transmission method for Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
What is the primary transmission method for Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
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Which of the following conditions is associated with Epstein-Barr Virus?
Which of the following conditions is associated with Epstein-Barr Virus?
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Which bacteria is known for causing skin infections and has virulence factors that include surface proteins and secreted enzymes?
Which bacteria is known for causing skin infections and has virulence factors that include surface proteins and secreted enzymes?
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What type of bacteria is responsible for diphtheria?
What type of bacteria is responsible for diphtheria?
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What is a characteristic of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)?
What is a characteristic of Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)?
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Which of the following pathogens is associated with the condition known as whooping cough?
Which of the following pathogens is associated with the condition known as whooping cough?
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What is a common post-infectious syndrome associated with Streptococcus infection?
What is a common post-infectious syndrome associated with Streptococcus infection?
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Which of the following bacteria are classified as Gram-negative rods?
Which of the following bacteria are classified as Gram-negative rods?
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Wat type micro-organismen worden gezien in het infiltraat in de lymfklier bij de diagnose die wordt gesteld?
Wat type micro-organismen worden gezien in het infiltraat in de lymfklier bij de diagnose die wordt gesteld?
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Welke aandoening is geassocieerd met Mycobacterium avium bij HIV-patiënten?
Welke aandoening is geassocieerd met Mycobacterium avium bij HIV-patiënten?
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Wat is de gouden standaard voor de diagnose van tuberculose?
Wat is de gouden standaard voor de diagnose van tuberculose?
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Welke symptomen zijn kenmerkend voor secundaire tuberculose?
Welke symptomen zijn kenmerkend voor secundaire tuberculose?
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Welke van de volgende aandoeningen wordt veroorzaakt door Mycobacterium leprae?
Welke van de volgende aandoeningen wordt veroorzaakt door Mycobacterium leprae?
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Welke ziekte wordt veroorzaakt door prionen?
Welke ziekte wordt veroorzaakt door prionen?
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Wat is een kenmerk van virussen in termen van hun levensstijl?
Wat is een kenmerk van virussen in termen van hun levensstijl?
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Welke van de volgende microben is zowel facultatief als obligaat intracecellulair?
Welke van de volgende microben is zowel facultatief als obligaat intracecellulair?
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Welk type microbe, volgens zijn levensstijl, leeft voornamelijk extracellulair?
Welk type microbe, volgens zijn levensstijl, leeft voornamelijk extracellulair?
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Wat onderscheidt facultatief intraceellulaire organismen van obligate intraceellulaire organismen?
Wat onderscheidt facultatief intraceellulaire organismen van obligate intraceellulaire organismen?
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Welke ziekte is verbonden aan de parasiet Leishmania donovani?
Welke ziekte is verbonden aan de parasiet Leishmania donovani?
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Welk type schimmel wordt vaak geassocieerd met opportunistische infecties?
Welk type schimmel wordt vaak geassocieerd met opportunistische infecties?
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Welke categorie van infectieuze agentia omvat voornamelijk wormparasieten?
Welke categorie van infectieuze agentia omvat voornamelijk wormparasieten?
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Wat is een mogelijke complicatie van een herhaalde leverbeschadiging door hepatitis-infecties?
Wat is een mogelijke complicatie van een herhaalde leverbeschadiging door hepatitis-infecties?
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Welke ziekte veroorzaakt Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
Welke ziekte veroorzaakt Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
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Welke van de volgende bacteriën is grampositief en kan huidinfecties veroorzaken?
Welke van de volgende bacteriën is grampositief en kan huidinfecties veroorzaken?
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Wat is een kenmerk van Streptococcus infecties?
Wat is een kenmerk van Streptococcus infecties?
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Wat is een belangrijke virulentiefactor van Staphylococcus aureus?
Wat is een belangrijke virulentiefactor van Staphylococcus aureus?
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Wat kenmerkt de infectie veroorzaakt door Neisseria gonorrhoeae?
Wat kenmerkt de infectie veroorzaakt door Neisseria gonorrhoeae?
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Wat is een voornaamste transmissiemethode voor het Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
Wat is een voornaamste transmissiemethode voor het Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)?
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Wat voor soort bacteriën zijn Bacillus anthracis en Corynebacterium diphtheriae?
Wat voor soort bacteriën zijn Bacillus anthracis en Corynebacterium diphtheriae?
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Welke van de volgende bacteriën is verantwoordelijk voor de ziekte van tuberculose?
Welke van de volgende bacteriën is verantwoordelijk voor de ziekte van tuberculose?
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Wat is een veelvoorkomend post-infectie syndroom geassocieerd met infecties door Streptococcus soorten?
Wat is een veelvoorkomend post-infectie syndroom geassocieerd met infecties door Streptococcus soorten?
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Wat is een belangrijke eigenschap van prionen?
Wat is een belangrijke eigenschap van prionen?
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Wat typeert Gram-positieve bacteriën in vergelijking met Gram-negatieve bacteriën?
Wat typeert Gram-positieve bacteriën in vergelijking met Gram-negatieve bacteriën?
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Welk type schimmel is het meest verantwoordelijk voor opportunistische infecties?
Welk type schimmel is het meest verantwoordelijk voor opportunistische infecties?
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Welk type protozoa is geassocieerd met de ziekte malaria?
Welk type protozoa is geassocieerd met de ziekte malaria?
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Welk van de volgende is een goed voorbeeld van een opportunistische schimmel?
Welk van de volgende is een goed voorbeeld van een opportunistische schimmel?
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Wat zijn de belangrijkste routes waardoor microben het lichaam binnendringen?
Wat zijn de belangrijkste routes waardoor microben het lichaam binnendringen?
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Wat beschrijft het best het verschil tussen aerobe en anaërobe bacteriën?
Wat beschrijft het best het verschil tussen aerobe en anaërobe bacteriën?
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Welke ziekte wordt veroorzaakt door het door SARS-CoV-2 veroorzaakte virus?
Welke ziekte wordt veroorzaakt door het door SARS-CoV-2 veroorzaakte virus?
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Welke organismen worden geclassificeerd als helminthen?
Welke organismen worden geclassificeerd als helminthen?
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Wat is een belangrijk diagnostisch hulpmiddel voor het detecteren van bepaalde infecties?
Wat is een belangrijk diagnostisch hulpmiddel voor het detecteren van bepaalde infecties?
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Wat is een voorbeeld van een exo-toxine dat door bacteriën wordt geproduceerd?
Wat is een voorbeeld van een exo-toxine dat door bacteriën wordt geproduceerd?
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Welke van de volgende mechanismen wordt gebruikt door bacteriën voor immuunontwijking?
Welke van de volgende mechanismen wordt gebruikt door bacteriën voor immuunontwijking?
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Wat is een typisch effect van superantigenen geproduceerd door bacteriën?
Wat is een typisch effect van superantigenen geproduceerd door bacteriën?
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Welke aandoening is geassocieerd met kruisreactie door immuniteit?
Welke aandoening is geassocieerd met kruisreactie door immuniteit?
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Wat doet de dichte capsule van bacteriën?
Wat doet de dichte capsule van bacteriën?
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Waarom kunnen sommige bacteriën zich repliceren in fagocyten?
Waarom kunnen sommige bacteriën zich repliceren in fagocyten?
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Welk type weefselschade is typisch gevolg van directe immuunschade?
Welk type weefselschade is typisch gevolg van directe immuunschade?
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Welke bacteriën worden gekenmerkt door de productie van toxische eiwitten die fagocyten kunnen doden?
Welke bacteriën worden gekenmerkt door de productie van toxische eiwitten die fagocyten kunnen doden?
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Welke moleculen zijn verantwoordelijk voor de hechting van bacteriën aan cellen?
Welke moleculen zijn verantwoordelijk voor de hechting van bacteriën aan cellen?
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Wat is een voorbeeld van een endotooxine?
Wat is een voorbeeld van een endotooxine?
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Study Notes
Prions
- Prion proteins (PrP sc) cause pathogenesis through accumulation in the brain.
- Associated clinical diseases include Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) in cows, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), and Kuru in humans.
Viruses
- Viral particles are typically less than ½ micron.
- Composed of a DNA/RNA core (genome) and a protein coat called capsid; some have a lipid envelope.
- Viruses often require a host for replication and transmission.
Bacteria
- Identified using Gram staining with crystal violet:
- Gram-positive: Thick wall, single phospholipid layer.
- Gram-negative: Thin wall, double phospholipid layers.
- Shapes include cocci (spherical) and bacilli (rod-shaped).
- Oxygen requirements:
- Aerobic: Require oxygen.
- Anaerobic: Do not require oxygen.
Fungi
- Grows in forms such as yeasts and hyphae (can be septate or aseptate).
- Candida is the most prevalent fungal pathogen.
- Infections can be superficial (e.g., dermatophytes) or deep (e.g., histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis).
- Opportunistic fungi include Candida, Aspergillus, Mucor, and Cryptococcus.
Protozoa
- Can reside in intestines or blood.
- Notable examples include Plasmodium (malaria), Leishmania, Trypanosoma, Toxoplasma, and Giardia.
Helminths
- Include roundworms (nematodes) and tapeworms (cestodes).
- Complex life cycles involve sexual and asexual reproduction.
- Key species include Ascaris and Taenia (types: solium vs. saginata).
Diagnostic Techniques
- Utilizes Hematoxylin and Eosin stains for histology.
- Employs special stains like Gram-positive/negative, acid-fast, silver, and Giemsa stains.
- Detection includes serum tests for pathogen-specific antibodies and molecular diagnostics like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
Agents of Bioterrorism
- Classified into three categories:
- Category A: Highest risk.
- Category B: Moderate risk.
- Category C: Emerging threats.
Emerging Infectious Diseases
- Recent examples include:
- SARS (2003)
- Swine Flu (2009)
- Ebola (2014)
- Chikungunya (2014)
- Zika (2015)
- COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2, from December 2019).
Microbial Entry Routes
- Common entry methods for microbes include:
- Skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and urogenital tract.
- Methods of entry: inhalation, ingestion, sexual transmission, insect/animal bites, and injection.
Infection Mechanisms
- Various pathogens exert damage through:
- Cell contact/entry.
- Toxin release leading to necrosis.
- Activation of the immune response resulting in tissue damage.
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers
- Caused by enveloped RNA viruses like Arenaviruses, Filoviruses, Bunyaviruses, and Flaviviruses.
- Present clinical spectrum includes mild fevers to life-threatening conditions with sudden hemodynamic deterioration.
Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV)
- Causes conditions like gingivostomatitis (HSV1) and genital herpes (HSV2).
- Clinically presents with self-limiting cold sores and can lead to severe neurological complications.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- Infects monocytes and bone marrow progenitors; transmission occurs via various routes including saliva and organ transplants.
- Reactivation can occur in immunocompromised individuals.
Hepatitis B Virus
- Causes acute and chronic infections; transmission can occur percutaneously, perinatally, or sexually.
- Primary target is hepatocytes, and immune response contributes to liver injury.
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
- Causes infectious mononucleosis and is associated with conditions like lymphomas and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
- Transmitted primarily through saliva.
Immunity
- Two types exist:
- Innate immunity: Physical barriers and immune cell responses.
- Adaptive immunity: Develops after exposure, involving T and B cells.
- Pathogens may employ immune evasion strategies including antigenic variation and suppression of immune responses.
Categories of Infectious Agents
- Prions: Misfolded proteins causing diseases like Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease.
- Viruses: Obligate intracellular pathogens with a protein coat; examples include poliovirus (causes poliomyelitis).
- Bacteria: Varied size and reproduction methods; can be gram-positive or gram-negative; examples include Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumonia).
- Fungi: Includes yeasts and hyphae; Candida albicans is the most prevalent fungus; infections include thrush and histoplasmosis.
- Protozoa: Diverse group causing diseases like malaria (Plasmodium) and Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi).
- Helminths: Parasites such as roundworms and tapeworms, with complex life cycles; examples include Ascaris and Taenia.
Viruses Overview
- Generally smaller than half a micron; consist of DNA/RNA core and protein capsid.
- May have a lipid envelope for protection.
Bacterial Classification
- Gram staining distinguishes between gram-positive (thicker wall) and gram-negative (thinner wall) bacteria.
- Shapes include cocci (spherical) and bacilli (rod-shaped).
- Can be aerobic (require oxygen) or anaerobic (do not require oxygen).
Fungal Infections
- Superficial infections caused by dermatophytes affecting skin (e.g., tinea).
- Deep infections can form granulomas; opportunistic fungi include Candida and Aspergillus.
Methods of Entry for Microbes
- Common entry routes: skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract.
- Ingress methods: inhalation, ingestion, adherence through adhesins and pili.
Bacteriological Toxins
- Types include endotoxins (part of bacterial cell walls) and exotoxins (secreted proteins affecting host cells).
- Neurotoxins (e.g., botulinum toxin) disrupt normal cell functions.
Immune Evasion Mechanisms
- Microbes can evade immune responses by being inaccessible, undergoing antigenic variation, resisting innate immunity, or inhibiting T-cell responses.
- Specific strategies include fast cell invasion, dense capsule formation, and modifying lipopolysaccharide structures.
Tuberculosis Overview
- Approximately 1.7 billion individuals globally infected; 8.7 million new cases annually.
- Major risk factors: AIDS, diabetes, chronic diseases, immunosuppression.
- Primary tuberculosis affects previously unexposed individuals; symptoms resemble acute bacterial infections.
Diagnosis of Tuberculosis
- Diagnosis includes physical examination, chest X-rays, acid-fast smears, and sputum cultures, with culture being the gold standard for drug susceptibility testing.
Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)
- Causes infectious mononucleosis and is associated with lymphomas and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
- Primarily transmitted via saliva; known as kissing disease.
Emerging Infectious Diseases
- Notable recent outbreaks include SARS (2003), swine flu (2009), Ebola (2014), Chikungunya (2014), Zika (2015), and COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2).
Immunological Response to Infections
- Direct tissue damage can occur through immune responses, leading to chronic conditions like cirrhosis in the case of viral hepatitis.
- Post-infectious syndromes like rheumatic fever can arise from immune responses to infections, particularly streptococcal infections.
Mycobacterium Overview
- Includes pathogenic species like Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, which affect both lungs and skin/nerves respectively.
- Characterized by acid-fast staining properties.
General Pathogen Characteristics
- Bacteria can be gram-positive or gram-negative with specific virulence factors.
- Viral infections can lead to serious diseases like hepatitis and various cancers, highlighting the need for effective diagnostics and treatments.
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Description
Explore the fascinating world of pathogens in this quiz, covering prion proteins, viruses, and bacteria. Learn about the characteristics, pathogenesis, and clinical implications of prion diseases such as BSE and CJD, alongside the structure of viruses and bacteria. Test your knowledge on these critical biological concepts.