Parts of Speech

Nouns:
- Proper nouns: names of specific people, places, or things (e.g. John, London)
- Common nouns: general terms (e.g. dog, city)
- Collective nouns: groups of people, animals, or things (e.g. family, flock)
- Abstract nouns: intangible concepts (e.g. happiness, freedom)
Verbs:
- Action verbs: express action or occurrence (e.g. run, eat)
- Linking verbs: connect subject to additional information (e.g. be, seem)
- Helping verbs: used to form tense, mood, or voice (e.g. will, would)
Adjectives:
- Modify nouns or pronouns (e.g. big, happy)
- Quantitative adjectives: express quantity (e.g. five, tenth)
- Qualitative adjectives: express quality (e.g. good, beautiful)
Adverbs:
- Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g. quickly, very)
- Time adverbs: express time (e.g. yesterday, soon)
- Place adverbs: express location (e.g. here, there)
Pronouns:
- Replace nouns in a sentence (e.g. he, she, it)
- Personal pronouns: refer to people or animals (e.g. I, you, he)
- Possessive pronouns: show ownership (e.g. my, your, his)

Independent Clauses:
- Contain a subject and a predicate
- Express a complete thought
Dependent Clauses:
- Contain a subject and a predicate, but cannot stand alone
- Begin with a subordinating conjunction (e.g. because, although)
Sentence Types:
- Declarative: states a fact or opinion
- Interrogative: asks a question
- Imperative: gives a command or makes a request
- Exclamatory: expresses strong emotions

Present Tense:
- Used to describe current actions or states
- Forms: base form, -s/-es for singular nouns, -ing for progressive
Past Tense:
- Used to describe completed actions or states
- Forms: -ed for regular verbs, irregular verb forms
Future Tense:
- Used to describe future actions or states
- Forms: will + base form, going to + base form
Perfect Tenses:
- Used to describe completed actions with a connection to the present
- Forms: has/had + past participle, have/had + past participle
Progressive Tenses:
- Used to describe ongoing actions or states
- Forms: is/was/am + -ing, were + -ing

Modal Verbs:
- Express degrees of possibility, necessity, or obligation
- Examples: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would
Modal Verb Forms:
- Present: ability, permission, or possibility
- Past: ability, permission, or possibility in the past
- Future: prediction, intention, or obligation

Independent and Dependent Clauses:
- Independent clauses: complete thoughts
- Dependent clauses: incomplete thoughts, begin with subordinating conjunctions
Phrases:
- Noun phrases: function as a noun
- Verb phrases: function as a verb
- Adjective phrases: function as an adjective
- Adverb phrases: function as an adverb

Nouns can be proper (specific people, places, or things), common (general terms), collective (groups), or abstract (intangible concepts)
Verbs can be action (express action or occurrence), linking (connect subject to additional information), or helping (used to form tense, mood, or voice)
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns and can be quantitative (express quantity) or qualitative (express quality)
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs and can express time, place, or manner
Pronouns replace nouns in a sentence and can be personal (refer to people or animals), possessive (show ownership), or reflexive (refer back to the subject)

Independent Clauses contain a subject and a predicate and express a complete thought
Dependent Clauses contain a subject and a predicate, but begin with a subordinating conjunction and cannot stand alone
Sentences can be declarative (state a fact or opinion), interrogative (ask a question), imperative (give a command), or exclamatory (express strong emotions)

Present Tense describes current actions or states and has forms like base form, -s/-es for singular nouns, and -ing for progressive
Past Tense describes completed actions or states and has forms like -ed for regular verbs and irregular verb forms
Future Tense describes future actions or states and has forms like will + base form or going to + base form
Perfect Tenses describe completed actions with a connection to the present and have forms like has/had + past participle or have/had + past participle
Progressive Tenses describe ongoing actions or states and have forms like is/was/am + -ing or were + -ing

Modal Verbs express degrees of possibility, necessity, or obligation and include can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, and would
Modal Verb Forms express ability, permission, or possibility in the present, past, or future

Independent and Dependent Clauses differ in that independent clauses are complete thoughts while dependent clauses are incomplete thoughts that begin with subordinating conjunctions
Phrases can be noun phrases (function as a noun), verb phrases (function as a verb), adjective phrases (function as an adjective), or adverb phrases (function as an adverb)