Papal Power

The History and Role of the Pope in the Catholic Church

The Pope is the head of the worldwide Catholic Church and the bishop of Rome, with his primacy largely derived from his role as the apostolic successor to Saint Peter.
The Holy See, headquartered in the Vatican City State, is the sovereign entity recognized by international law and has diplomatic relations with many independent states.
The apostolic see of Rome was founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the first century, and the papacy has played a prominent part in human history.
The papacy has helped spread Christianity, intervened in doctrinal disputes, acted as arbitrators between Christian monarchs, and participated in ecumenism, interfaith dialogue, charitable work, and the defense of human rights.
The papacy's temporal authority has declined, but its spiritual authority has been increasingly firmly expressed over time, culminating in the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870.
The pope's extensive diplomatic, cultural, and spiritual influence makes him one of the world's most powerful people, and the Catholic Church is the world's largest non-government provider of education and health care.
The word "pope" derives from the Greek "páppas," meaning "father," and was first used in reference to the bishop of Rome in the 11th century.
The Catholic Church teaches that the bishop of Rome (the pope) is the successor of Saint Peter and holds the pastoral office of shepherding the Church.
Some historians argue against the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, but evidence suggests that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero.
During the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of the worldwide Church, but Rome became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance.
The pope served as a source of authority and continuity after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and Pope Gregory I administered the church with strict reform.
The papacy came under the control of vying political factions during the Middle Ages, but the Gregorian Reform, initiated by Pope Gregory VII, aimed to restore ecclesiastical discipline and fight against simony and abuse of civil power.The History and Function of the Papacy
The papacy is the office of the pope, the Bishop of Rome and leader of the Catholic Church.
The papacy has its roots in the early Christian Church, with references to the authority and unique position held by the Bishops of Rome found in the writings of Church Fathers such as Cyprian of Carthage and Irenaeus of Lyons.
The East-West Schism in 1054 definitively split the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church, with popes struggling for power against monarchs and facing challenges from antipopes and cardinals.
The concept of indulgences, the Treasury of Merit, and papal infallibility were introduced and eventually addressed by the Catholic Reformation, which culminated in the Council of Trent.
The pope is traditionally elected by the College of Cardinals, with the electorate being limited to those who have not reached 80 years of age and can be ordained a bishop.
The papal election process takes place in a sequestered meeting called a "conclave," with ballots counted and burned to produce smoke indicating the result of the vote.
The pope assumes a place of honor and is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church.
The symbolic keys in the Papal coats of arms are a reference to the phrase "the keys of the kingdom of heaven," which is used to support Peter's special position in relation to the Church.
The Catholic Church teaches that the bishops as a body have succeeded to the body of the apostles and the bishop of Rome has succeeded to Saint Peter, who is also compared to the figure of Eliakim in the Old Testament.
The pope has faced criticism from Protestant Reformers, who characterized the pope as the antichrist and rejected the concept of papal infallibility or universal jurisdiction.
The pope's authority and power have been challenged throughout history, with major events such as the East-West Schism, the Western Schism, and the Protestant Reformation shaping the role and function of the papacy.
The Primacy of St. Peter, the concept of papal infallibility, and the role of the pope in maintaining unity within the Church continue to be points of contention between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches and Protestants.The Titles and Traditions of the Papacy
The election of a new pope is announced by the cardinal protodeacon from a balcony over St. Peter's Square, followed by a papal coronation that includes a procession and the crowning with the triregnum.
The Latin term "sede vacante" refers to the period between the death or resignation of a pope and the election of his successor, during which the College of Cardinals governs the Church.
Resignation of a pope is highly unusual, with Benedict XVI being the most recent and the first since Gregory XII in 1415.
Popes adopt a new name on their accession, known as the papal name, and the senior cardinal deacon announces it in Latin from the balcony of St. Peter's.
The official list of titles of the pope includes "Bishop of Rome", "Vicar of Jesus Christ", "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church", and "Servant of the Servants of God".
The title "pope" was initially used as an honorific for any bishop in the West, but from the 6th century, it referred specifically to the bishop of Rome.
"Vicar of Jesus Christ" is a title that expresses the pope's supreme headship of the Church on Earth, derived from Christ's commission to St. Peter.
The title "pontiff" comes from the Latin term "pontifex", meaning "bridge builder", and was used in pagan Rome to refer to a member of the principal college of priests.
The title "patriarch of the West" was used occasionally by popes from the 7th century, but was only included in the Annuario Pontificio from 1863 until 2005.
Other titles commonly used for the pope include "His Holiness", "Holy Father", and "Most Blessed Father".
Popes sign documents with their name alone or with the abbreviation "PP." before their ordinal numeral, as in "Paulus PP. VI".
Traditions during the interregnum period include the cardinal camerlengo ceremonially tapping the pope's head thrice with a silver hammer to confirm his death and cutting the Ring of the Fisherman in two.The Papacy: History, Regalia, Politics, and Objections
The pope is the bishop of Rome and the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church.
Papal bulls are official documents signed by the pope and often include the signatures of other bishops.
Each pope has a personal coat of arms that traditionally includes two keys in saltire and a triregnum.
The pope's official flag is yellow and white and includes the arms of the Holy See.
The pope traditionally wears white, but may also wear a red mantle, mozzetta, camauro, and shoes.
The First Vatican Council defined the pope's status and authority in the Catholic Church in 1870.
The Second Vatican Council declared that the pope is the bishop of Rome and the spiritual leader of the Catholic Church.
The pope's official seat is in the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran and his official residence is the Apostolic Palace.
The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is the Holy See, while his secular jurisdiction is Vatican City.
The pope has historically held political and temporal authority, including the Papal States and the power to crown emperors.
The pope enjoys head-of-state immunity recognized by the United States, but can face trial in foreign commercial courts.
Other Christian churches, including Orthodox, Anglican, Old Catholic, and Protestant denominations, reject or dispute the pope's authority for various reasons.

A Brief History and Overview of Economics

Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Microeconomics analyzes individual agents and markets, while macroeconomics analyzes the economy as a system.
Other distinctions within economics include positive vs. normative economics, rational vs. behavioral economics, and mainstream vs. heterodox economics.
Economics can be applied to various fields, including business, finance, health care, and government.
The term "economics" is derived from the Greek word for "household management."
Adam Smith defined political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations."
Lionel Robbins defined economics as the study of human behavior under the influence of scarcity.
Classical political economy, including the work of Smith and Ricardo, focused on land, labor, and capital as factors of production.
Marxian economics, developed by Karl Marx, focused on the labor theory of value and the exploitation of labor by capital.
Neoclassical economics, defined by Lionel Robbins, focused on the study of human behavior under scarcity.
Economic thought has evolved over time, with different definitions and perspectives on the subject.
Economics continues to be a key field of study and application in modern society, with ongoing debates and developments in theory and practice.Overview of Economics: Schools of Thought, Methodology, and Branches
Economics is the study of human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means with alternative uses.
Neoclassical economics, formed from 1870 to 1910, systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium.
Keynesian economics, derived from John Maynard Keynes, focuses on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.
The Chicago School of economics advocates for free markets and monetarist ideas, while the Austrian School emphasizes human action, property rights, and sound money.
Other schools of thought include ecological economics, institutional economics, feminist economics, and biophysical economics, among others.
Mainstream economic theory relies on a priori quantitative economic models and assumes ceteris paribus, holding constant explanatory variables other than the one under consideration.
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system and analyzing how entities interact within a market to create a market system.
Macroeconomics studies aggregate economic variables, such as national income and inflation, and their interactions.
Empirical research in economics frequently uses econometrics to test hypotheses through observation of economic data.
Input-output models and controlled experiments, such as those used in experimental economics and neuroeconomics, are also common methods used in applied economics.
The economy is a complex adaptive system, with continuous interplay between economic actors in all markets setting prices for goods and services and determining levels of output, consumption, savings, investment, and remuneration.
Economic agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice.Overview of Microeconomics
Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual agents, such as consumers, firms, and markets, and how they interact with each other.
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behavior, while microeconomics aggregates across all markets.
Production is the conversion of inputs into outputs and includes the use of primary factors of production such as labor, capital, and land.
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best opportunity foregone, and economic efficiency measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology.
Specialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations, as it creates opportunities for gains from trade.
The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed.
Firms combine labor and capital and can achieve far greater economies of scale than individual market trading, and industrial organization generalizes from the special case of perfect competition to study the strategic behavior of firms.
Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units.
Uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, and game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents.
Financial economics describes the allocation of financial resources, the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, and the efficiency and fragility of financial markets.
Market failure encompasses several problems that may undermine standard economic assumptions, including information asymmetry, adverse selection, moral hazard, and incomplete markets.
Applied subjects in economics include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.Overview of Economics: Markets, Policy, and Inequality
Market failures occur when economic theories don't match reality and can result in inefficiencies, such as natural monopoly and externalities.
Public goods are under-supplied in typical markets and generate positive externalities, while negative externalities may be taxed or restricted by governments.
Demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment, and price stickiness is postulated to account for short-run adjustments.
Economics of the public sector, environmental economics, and welfare economics use microeconomic techniques to evaluate well-being and policy options.
Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole and studies the effects of monetary and fiscal policy on broad aggregates and their interactions.
Growth economics studies factors that explain economic growth, including investment, population growth, and technological change.
Business cycle theories examine the effects of economic downturns on unemployment and output and propose active policy responses by the public sector.
Unemployment can be classified as cyclical, structural, or frictional and is measured by the unemployment rate.
Money is a means of final payment for goods and a store of value that facilitates trade, and its management is a key aspect of monetary policy.
Fiscal policy influences macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand, but can be limited by crowding out and Ricardian equivalence.
Economic inequality includes income and wealth inequality and is linked to political and social instability, hindering economic growth and macroeconomic stability.
Public economics deals with the economic activities of the public sector, including tax incidence, cost-benefit analysis, and fiscal politics.
Labor economics studies the markets for wage labor and examines the interaction of workers and employers, including human capital and development economics.

A Brief History and Overview of Economics

Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Microeconomics analyzes individual agents and markets, while macroeconomics analyzes the economy as a system.
Other distinctions within economics include positive vs. normative economics, rational vs. behavioral economics, and mainstream vs. heterodox economics.
Economics can be applied to various fields, including business, finance, health care, and government.
The term "economics" is derived from the Greek word for "household management."
Adam Smith defined political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations."
Lionel Robbins defined economics as the study of human behavior under the influence of scarcity.
Classical political economy, including the work of Smith and Ricardo, focused on land, labor, and capital as factors of production.
Marxian economics, developed by Karl Marx, focused on the labor theory of value and the exploitation of labor by capital.
Neoclassical economics, defined by Lionel Robbins, focused on the study of human behavior under scarcity.
Economic thought has evolved over time, with different definitions and perspectives on the subject.
Economics continues to be a key field of study and application in modern society, with ongoing debates and developments in theory and practice.Overview of Economics: Schools of Thought, Methodology, and Branches
Economics is the study of human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means with alternative uses.
Neoclassical economics, formed from 1870 to 1910, systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium.
Keynesian economics, derived from John Maynard Keynes, focuses on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.
The Chicago School of economics advocates for free markets and monetarist ideas, while the Austrian School emphasizes human action, property rights, and sound money.
Other schools of thought include ecological economics, institutional economics, feminist economics, and biophysical economics, among others.
Mainstream economic theory relies on a priori quantitative economic models and assumes ceteris paribus, holding constant explanatory variables other than the one under consideration.
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system and analyzing how entities interact within a market to create a market system.
Macroeconomics studies aggregate economic variables, such as national income and inflation, and their interactions.
Empirical research in economics frequently uses econometrics to test hypotheses through observation of economic data.
Input-output models and controlled experiments, such as those used in experimental economics and neuroeconomics, are also common methods used in applied economics.
The economy is a complex adaptive system, with continuous interplay between economic actors in all markets setting prices for goods and services and determining levels of output, consumption, savings, investment, and remuneration.
Economic agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice.Overview of Microeconomics
Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual agents, such as consumers, firms, and markets, and how they interact with each other.
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behavior, while microeconomics aggregates across all markets.
Production is the conversion of inputs into outputs and includes the use of primary factors of production such as labor, capital, and land.
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best opportunity foregone, and economic efficiency measures how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology.
Specialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations, as it creates opportunities for gains from trade.
The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed.
Firms combine labor and capital and can achieve far greater economies of scale than individual market trading, and industrial organization generalizes from the special case of perfect competition to study the strategic behavior of firms.
Managerial economics applies microeconomic analysis to specific decisions in business firms or other management units.
Uncertainty in economics is an unknown prospect of gain or loss, and game theory is a branch of applied mathematics that considers strategic interactions between agents.
Financial economics describes the allocation of financial resources, the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, and the efficiency and fragility of financial markets.
Market failure encompasses several problems that may undermine standard economic assumptions, including information asymmetry, adverse selection, moral hazard, and incomplete markets.
Applied subjects in economics include market and legal remedies to spread or reduce risk, such as warranties, government-mandated partial insurance, restructuring or bankruptcy law, inspection, and regulation for quality and information disclosure.Overview of Economics: Markets, Policy, and Inequality
Market failures occur when economic theories don't match reality and can result in inefficiencies, such as natural monopoly and externalities.
Public goods are under-supplied in typical markets and generate positive externalities, while negative externalities may be taxed or restricted by governments.
Demand-and-supply theory predicts equilibrium but not the speed of adjustment, and price stickiness is postulated to account for short-run adjustments.
Economics of the public sector, environmental economics, and welfare economics use microeconomic techniques to evaluate well-being and policy options.
Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole and studies the effects of monetary and fiscal policy on broad aggregates and their interactions.
Growth economics studies factors that explain economic growth, including investment, population growth, and technological change.
Business cycle theories examine the effects of economic downturns on unemployment and output and propose active policy responses by the public sector.
Unemployment can be classified as cyclical, structural, or frictional and is measured by the unemployment rate.
Money is a means of final payment for goods and a store of value that facilitates trade, and its management is a key aspect of monetary policy.
Fiscal policy influences macroeconomic conditions by adjusting spending and taxation policies to alter aggregate demand, but can be limited by crowding out and Ricardian equivalence.
Economic inequality includes income and wealth inequality and is linked to political and social instability, hindering economic growth and macroeconomic stability.
Public economics deals with the economic activities of the public sector, including tax incidence, cost-benefit analysis, and fiscal politics.
Labor economics studies the markets for wage labor and examines the interaction of workers and employers, including human capital and development economics.