Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which term refers to pain relief or decrease?
Which term refers to pain relief or decrease?
- Hyperalgesia
- Analgesic (correct)
- Algesic
- Hypoalgesia
What is the primary cause of nociceptive pain?
What is the primary cause of nociceptive pain?
- Neural tissue lesion
- Neurogenic inflammation
- Inflammation of a nerve
- Nociceptive firing (correct)
Which term refers to pain due to a stimulus that normally does not provoke pain?
Which term refers to pain due to a stimulus that normally does not provoke pain?
- Hyperalgesia
- Allodynia (correct)
- Algesic
- Analgesic
What is the cause of central pain?
What is the cause of central pain?
Which term refers to an altered sensitivity of nociceptors resulting in an increase in pain perception?
Which term refers to an altered sensitivity of nociceptors resulting in an increase in pain perception?
What physiological process can lead to chronic pain lasting more than 3-6 months?
What physiological process can lead to chronic pain lasting more than 3-6 months?
Which term refers to inflammation of a nerve root?
Which term refers to inflammation of a nerve root?
Which pathway is responsible for the transmission of pain and temperature signals to the postcentral gyrus?
Which pathway is responsible for the transmission of pain and temperature signals to the postcentral gyrus?
What is the main function of the cingulate gyrus in relation to pain?
What is the main function of the cingulate gyrus in relation to pain?
Which area of the brain is responsible for autonomic responses to pain?
Which area of the brain is responsible for autonomic responses to pain?
Where are interneurons located in the modulation of pain?
Where are interneurons located in the modulation of pain?
What is the term used to describe individuals who are congenitally insensitive to pain?
What is the term used to describe individuals who are congenitally insensitive to pain?
Why are individuals with congenital insensitivity to pain easily injured?
Why are individuals with congenital insensitivity to pain easily injured?
What is the likely cause of death for individuals with congenital insensitivity to pain?
What is the likely cause of death for individuals with congenital insensitivity to pain?
What is the function of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in nociceptors?
What is the function of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) in nociceptors?
Which fibers report to the dorsal horn or to the brainstem nuclei?
Which fibers report to the dorsal horn or to the brainstem nuclei?
What type of pain sensation is conveyed by Ad fibers?
What type of pain sensation is conveyed by Ad fibers?
What type of pain sensation is conveyed by C fibers?
What type of pain sensation is conveyed by C fibers?
What is the result of sudden painful stimulation on nociceptors?
What is the result of sudden painful stimulation on nociceptors?
What is the main concept of the Gate Control Theory of Pain?
What is the main concept of the Gate Control Theory of Pain?
What is referred pain?
What is referred pain?
Which of the following is a possible cause of abnormal discharges in the nervous system?
Which of the following is a possible cause of abnormal discharges in the nervous system?
Where do descending signals that stimulate inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord originate from?
Where do descending signals that stimulate inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord originate from?
What is the function of inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord?
What is the function of inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord?
Which neurotransmitters are released by the descending pathways that modulate pain?
Which neurotransmitters are released by the descending pathways that modulate pain?
How do opioid peptides from spinal inhibitory interneurons block nociceptive transmission?
How do opioid peptides from spinal inhibitory interneurons block nociceptive transmission?
Which of the following can inhibit pain according to the text?
Which of the following can inhibit pain according to the text?
What is the recommended approach for managing pain that lasts for more than 3-6 months?
What is the recommended approach for managing pain that lasts for more than 3-6 months?
What is the function of the endogenous analgesic system?
What is the function of the endogenous analgesic system?
What is the role of dorsal horn interneurons in modulating information from the periphery to the brain?
What is the role of dorsal horn interneurons in modulating information from the periphery to the brain?
Which part of the eye is responsible for transducing light energy into nervous signals?
Which part of the eye is responsible for transducing light energy into nervous signals?
What is the term used to describe the conversion of light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the conversion of light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
Which region of visual space is seen by both eyes?
Which region of visual space is seen by both eyes?
What is the term used to describe the remaining regions of visual space that are seen by only one eye?
What is the term used to describe the remaining regions of visual space that are seen by only one eye?
How many degrees comprise the monocular regions of the right and left hemifields?
How many degrees comprise the monocular regions of the right and left hemifields?
What is the term used to describe the arc of visual space that we see with our eyes?
What is the term used to describe the arc of visual space that we see with our eyes?
What is the primary function of the lens in the eye?
What is the primary function of the lens in the eye?
What is the term used to describe the condition where the image is formed in front of the retina?
What is the term used to describe the condition where the image is formed in front of the retina?
Which part of the eye refracts light to form a focused image on the retina?
Which part of the eye refracts light to form a focused image on the retina?
Which hemisphere of the visual cortex receives input from the left hemifield of visual space?
Which hemisphere of the visual cortex receives input from the left hemifield of visual space?
What is the term used to describe the arrangement of cells in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the arrangement of cells in the retina?
What is the function of bipolar cells in the retina?
What is the function of bipolar cells in the retina?
What type of cells generate nervous signals for transmission into the brain via the optic nerve?
What type of cells generate nervous signals for transmission into the brain via the optic nerve?
What is the role of Muller cells in the retina?
What is the role of Muller cells in the retina?
Which type of cells in the retina generate nervous signaling that is sent into the brain?
Which type of cells in the retina generate nervous signaling that is sent into the brain?
What is the role of bipolar cells in the visual pathway?
What is the role of bipolar cells in the visual pathway?
What is the main difference between rods and cones in terms of phototransduction?
What is the main difference between rods and cones in terms of phototransduction?
What is the function of rhodopsin pigment in rods during phototransduction?
What is the function of rhodopsin pigment in rods during phototransduction?
Which type of photoreceptor is responsible for scotopic vision (night vision)?
Which type of photoreceptor is responsible for scotopic vision (night vision)?
What is the main difference between rods and cones in terms of visual acuity?
What is the main difference between rods and cones in terms of visual acuity?
What is the main concept of phototransduction cascade in photoreceptors?
What is the main concept of phototransduction cascade in photoreceptors?
Which statement accurately describes the membrane potential of photoreceptors in low intensity light (dark)?
Which statement accurately describes the membrane potential of photoreceptors in low intensity light (dark)?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors in high intensity light (bright light)?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors in high intensity light (bright light)?
What is the role of cGMP in regulating the membrane potential of photoreceptors?
What is the role of cGMP in regulating the membrane potential of photoreceptors?
What is the term for the Na+ entry through open channels in photoreceptors in low intensity light?
What is the term for the Na+ entry through open channels in photoreceptors in low intensity light?
What is the term for the loss of Na+ conductance caused by closure of channels in photoreceptors in high intensity light?
What is the term for the loss of Na+ conductance caused by closure of channels in photoreceptors in high intensity light?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors with decreasing illumination?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors with decreasing illumination?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors with increasing illumination?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors with increasing illumination?
What is the relationship between the membrane potential of photoreceptors and the release of neurotransmitters (NT)?
What is the relationship between the membrane potential of photoreceptors and the release of neurotransmitters (NT)?
What is the next step in the phototransduction cascade after the membrane potential of photoreceptors changes?
What is the next step in the phototransduction cascade after the membrane potential of photoreceptors changes?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What happens to the Na channels in photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the Na channels in photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the Na channels in photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What happens to the Na channels in photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors when the illumination decreases?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What happens to the membrane potential of photoreceptors when the illumination increases?
What is the role of cGMP in regulating the membrane potential of photoreceptors?
What is the role of cGMP in regulating the membrane potential of photoreceptors?
What is the role of Glutamate in the visual processing pathway?
What is the role of Glutamate in the visual processing pathway?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination remains the same?
What happens to the neurotransmitter release from photoreceptors when the illumination remains the same?
How do photoreceptors adapt when the illumination remains the same?
How do photoreceptors adapt when the illumination remains the same?
What is the function of calcium in the photoreceptor cells?
What is the function of calcium in the photoreceptor cells?
What happens to the sensitivity of photoreceptors in continuous bright light?
What happens to the sensitivity of photoreceptors in continuous bright light?
What type of response do ON bipolar cells have to glutamate?
What type of response do ON bipolar cells have to glutamate?
What is the response of OFF bipolar cells to glutamate?
What is the response of OFF bipolar cells to glutamate?
What type of response do ON-type bipolar cells have to glutamate from photoreceptors?
What type of response do ON-type bipolar cells have to glutamate from photoreceptors?
What type of response do OFF-type bipolar cells have to glutamate from photoreceptors?
What type of response do OFF-type bipolar cells have to glutamate from photoreceptors?
What is the response of ganglion cells to glutamate neurotransmitter?
What is the response of ganglion cells to glutamate neurotransmitter?
What is the purpose of the ON and OFF columns of retinal cells?
What is the purpose of the ON and OFF columns of retinal cells?
What is the purpose of the center-surround receptive field organization in ganglion cells?
What is the purpose of the center-surround receptive field organization in ganglion cells?
What is the role of horizontal cells in the modulation of neurotransmitter release in the retina?
What is the role of horizontal cells in the modulation of neurotransmitter release in the retina?
Which type of pathway is responsible for processing motion and poor detail in the visual space?
Which type of pathway is responsible for processing motion and poor detail in the visual space?
What happens to the firing rate of ganglion cells when a stimulus is presented in the center of their receptive field?
What happens to the firing rate of ganglion cells when a stimulus is presented in the center of their receptive field?
Which condition leads to a maximum change in signaling frequency in ganglion cells?
Which condition leads to a maximum change in signaling frequency in ganglion cells?
What is the main function of the ganglion cell receptive fields in the visual system?
What is the main function of the ganglion cell receptive fields in the visual system?
Which type of processing occurs when the Parvo pathway and Magnopathway process visual information together?
Which type of processing occurs when the Parvo pathway and Magnopathway process visual information together?
What is the role of convergence in visual processing?
What is the role of convergence in visual processing?
Which pathway is responsible for processing stationary objects, color, and spatial resolution in the visual space?
Which pathway is responsible for processing stationary objects, color, and spatial resolution in the visual space?
What type of cues are used by the visual system to perceive depth, shadows, relative size, color constancy, shape constancy, and size constancy?
What type of cues are used by the visual system to perceive depth, shadows, relative size, color constancy, shape constancy, and size constancy?
What is the main function of the lens in the eye?
What is the main function of the lens in the eye?
Which part of the visual cortex receives input from the left hemifield of visual space?
Which part of the visual cortex receives input from the left hemifield of visual space?
What are the three parts of the ear responsible for collecting and transmitting sound?
What are the three parts of the ear responsible for collecting and transmitting sound?
Which property of vibration of air contributes to the perception of loudness?
Which property of vibration of air contributes to the perception of loudness?
Which property of vibration of air contributes to the perception of pitch?
Which property of vibration of air contributes to the perception of pitch?
What are the two types of fluid found within the cochlea?
What are the two types of fluid found within the cochlea?
What is the role of hair cells in the inner ear?
What is the role of hair cells in the inner ear?
Where is the sensory apparatus for the transduction of sound energy located?
Where is the sensory apparatus for the transduction of sound energy located?
What is the composition of the fluid in the scala vestibuli and scala tympani?
What is the composition of the fluid in the scala vestibuli and scala tympani?
What is the composition of the fluid in the scala media?
What is the composition of the fluid in the scala media?
What is the purpose of the basilar membrane in the cochlea?
What is the purpose of the basilar membrane in the cochlea?
Where are the hair cells located in the inner ear?
Where are the hair cells located in the inner ear?
Which structure in the ear is responsible for the resonance frequency of specific frequencies of sound energy?
Which structure in the ear is responsible for the resonance frequency of specific frequencies of sound energy?
What is the function of the tonotopic map in the auditory system?
What is the function of the tonotopic map in the auditory system?
Where does auditory information branch off from the inferior colliculus?
Where does auditory information branch off from the inferior colliculus?
How is the direction of a sound source determined in the auditory system?
How is the direction of a sound source determined in the auditory system?
What is the role of the cochlear nuclei in the auditory system?
What is the role of the cochlear nuclei in the auditory system?
Which pathway is responsible for processing auditory information related to localization of objects and orientation of the head and eyes?
Which pathway is responsible for processing auditory information related to localization of objects and orientation of the head and eyes?
How are bilateral comparisons of sound made in the auditory system?
How are bilateral comparisons of sound made in the auditory system?
What is the main function of the primary auditory cortex?
What is the main function of the primary auditory cortex?
What is the purpose of breaking down sounds into individual frequency components in the auditory system?
What is the purpose of breaking down sounds into individual frequency components in the auditory system?
What is the function of the superior olivary complex in the auditory system?
What is the function of the superior olivary complex in the auditory system?
Which part of the middle ear functions as a piston?
Which part of the middle ear functions as a piston?
What is the purpose of the lever and piston arrangement of the ossicles in the middle ear?
What is the purpose of the lever and piston arrangement of the ossicles in the middle ear?
What happens to the pressure in the scala tympani when the basilar membrane is compressed?
What happens to the pressure in the scala tympani when the basilar membrane is compressed?
What drives potassium (K+) into the hair cells in the organ of Corti?
What drives potassium (K+) into the hair cells in the organ of Corti?
What causes the mechanically gated potassium (K+) channels to open in the hair cells?
What causes the mechanically gated potassium (K+) channels to open in the hair cells?
What is the role of the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti?
What is the role of the tectorial membrane in the organ of Corti?
What neurotransmitter is released from the hair cells in the organ of Corti?
What neurotransmitter is released from the hair cells in the organ of Corti?
How does the neurotransmitter release from the hair cell vary in relation to the back-and-forth displacement of the stereocilia?
How does the neurotransmitter release from the hair cell vary in relation to the back-and-forth displacement of the stereocilia?
What happens to the membrane potential of the hair cell when the voltage-gated calcium (Ca++) channels open?
What happens to the membrane potential of the hair cell when the voltage-gated calcium (Ca++) channels open?
What is the function of the voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels along the base of the hair cell?
What is the function of the voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels along the base of the hair cell?
Which body systems provide input for balance?
Which body systems provide input for balance?
What are the functions of the vestibular system?
What are the functions of the vestibular system?
What are the components of the vestibular apparatus/organ?
What are the components of the vestibular apparatus/organ?
What is the fluid composition of the membranous portion of the vestibular system?
What is the fluid composition of the membranous portion of the vestibular system?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for the vestibular system?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for the vestibular system?
What forces are the vestibular sensory organs responsive to?
What forces are the vestibular sensory organs responsive to?
What is the main function of the vestibular system?
What is the main function of the vestibular system?
What are the otolithic organs in the vestibular system?
What are the otolithic organs in the vestibular system?
Where are the components of the vestibular system located?
Where are the components of the vestibular system located?
What are the consequences of disruption in any of the body systems involved in balance?
What are the consequences of disruption in any of the body systems involved in balance?
Which part of the inner ear detects static head position relative to gravity and linear acceleration?
Which part of the inner ear detects static head position relative to gravity and linear acceleration?
What happens to the firing rate of the afferent nerve fiber when the stereocilia of hair cells bend towards the kinocilium?
What happens to the firing rate of the afferent nerve fiber when the stereocilia of hair cells bend towards the kinocilium?
Which part of the inner ear is responsible for detecting angular acceleration or rotation of the head?
Which part of the inner ear is responsible for detecting angular acceleration or rotation of the head?
What is the role of the otolithic membrane in the otolithic organs?
What is the role of the otolithic membrane in the otolithic organs?
What is the function of the cupula in the semicircular canals?
What is the function of the cupula in the semicircular canals?
What provides increased sensitivity for the detection and direction of motion in the vestibular system?
What provides increased sensitivity for the detection and direction of motion in the vestibular system?
Which part of the inner ear is responsible for detecting horizontal movement?
Which part of the inner ear is responsible for detecting horizontal movement?
What is the main function of the hair cells in the inner ear?
What is the main function of the hair cells in the inner ear?
Where is the synapse located for the sensory receptor hair cell in the vestibular system?
Where is the synapse located for the sensory receptor hair cell in the vestibular system?
What is the role of the efferent input to hair cells in the inner ear?
What is the role of the efferent input to hair cells in the inner ear?
Which of the following is NOT true about the semi-circular canals?
Which of the following is NOT true about the semi-circular canals?
What generates a 'differential signal' between the right and left canals of each pair in the semi-circular canals?
What generates a 'differential signal' between the right and left canals of each pair in the semi-circular canals?
Which side indicates the direction of rotation in the plane of one of the three pairs of semi-circular canals?
Which side indicates the direction of rotation in the plane of one of the three pairs of semi-circular canals?
Which nuclei receive and distribute afferent signaling from the vestibular receptors?
Which nuclei receive and distribute afferent signaling from the vestibular receptors?
Which nuclei are primarily responsible for coordinating eye and neck muscles?
Which nuclei are primarily responsible for coordinating eye and neck muscles?
Which tract descends to the level of the neck to control head and neck movements?
Which tract descends to the level of the neck to control head and neck movements?
Which tract descends the entire level of the cord to control the extensors for posture?
Which tract descends the entire level of the cord to control the extensors for posture?
Which cranial nerves are associated with the ascending medial longitudinal fasciculus?
Which cranial nerves are associated with the ascending medial longitudinal fasciculus?
What does the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) coordinate?
What does the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) coordinate?
What is the main function of the vestibular nuclei?
What is the main function of the vestibular nuclei?
Which of the following is NOT a type of taste receptor?
Which of the following is NOT a type of taste receptor?
Where are taste buds located in the oral cavity?
Where are taste buds located in the oral cavity?
Which type of taste bud is the least numerous?
Which type of taste bud is the least numerous?
What is the main component of umami taste?
What is the main component of umami taste?
Which taste contributes the most to the sense of flavor?
Which taste contributes the most to the sense of flavor?
Which type of papillae on the tongue do not have taste buds?
Which type of papillae on the tongue do not have taste buds?
Which type of taste bud is interspersed between filiform papillae on the tongue?
Which type of taste bud is interspersed between filiform papillae on the tongue?
What is the primary function of taste receptors?
What is the primary function of taste receptors?
Which sense is NOT dependent on taste receptors?
Which sense is NOT dependent on taste receptors?
What can change a person's preference for taste?
What can change a person's preference for taste?
Which cranial nerves carry afferent sensory neurons to the base synaptic area of taste buds?
Which cranial nerves carry afferent sensory neurons to the base synaptic area of taste buds?
How many gustatory cells are there in each taste bud?
How many gustatory cells are there in each taste bud?
What is the turnover rate of gustatory cells in the tongue?
What is the turnover rate of gustatory cells in the tongue?
What type of cells are gustatory cells?
What type of cells are gustatory cells?
What triggers the release of neurotransmitter from taste cells upon tastant stimulation?
What triggers the release of neurotransmitter from taste cells upon tastant stimulation?
How are individual tastant molecules sensed in taste cells?
How are individual tastant molecules sensed in taste cells?
Which taste sensation is mediated by the direct path through an ion channel?
Which taste sensation is mediated by the direct path through an ion channel?
Which taste sensation is mediated by the indirect path through a G-protein coupled receptor?
Which taste sensation is mediated by the indirect path through a G-protein coupled receptor?
How are different tastants discriminated in taste-based discrimination of different foods?
How are different tastants discriminated in taste-based discrimination of different foods?
Which cranial nerves carry gustatory information from taste cells to the CNS?
Which cranial nerves carry gustatory information from taste cells to the CNS?
What is the function of the olfactory epithelium in the sense of smell?
What is the function of the olfactory epithelium in the sense of smell?
What is the role of the thalamus in the olfactory neural pathway?
What is the role of the thalamus in the olfactory neural pathway?
Which part of the brain is responsible for emotions and memory in relation to the sense of smell?
Which part of the brain is responsible for emotions and memory in relation to the sense of smell?
What is the role of the granule cells in the olfactory bulb?
What is the role of the granule cells in the olfactory bulb?
How do individual odorants generate distinctive patterns of signals in the olfactory system?
How do individual odorants generate distinctive patterns of signals in the olfactory system?
What is the function of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) in the olfactory system?
What is the function of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) in the olfactory system?
Which cranial nerve is associated with the vomeronasal organ (VNO)?
Which cranial nerve is associated with the vomeronasal organ (VNO)?
What is the main cause of the loss of taste and smell in COVID-19?
What is the main cause of the loss of taste and smell in COVID-19?
What is the function of the olfactory bulb in the sense of smell?
What is the function of the olfactory bulb in the sense of smell?
Which part of the olfactory system is responsible for perceiving specific odors?
Which part of the olfactory system is responsible for perceiving specific odors?
Which type of sensory receptor responds to changes in temperature?
Which type of sensory receptor responds to changes in temperature?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
Which sensory receptor type responds to pressure and vibration?
Which sensory receptor type responds to pressure and vibration?
What is the term for the process through which a sensory receptor neuron transforms stimulus energy into a bioelectric signal?
What is the term for the process through which a sensory receptor neuron transforms stimulus energy into a bioelectric signal?
Which sensory system transduces color and brightness stimuli?
Which sensory system transduces color and brightness stimuli?
What is the term for the type of stimulus energy that a sensory system transduces?
What is the term for the type of stimulus energy that a sensory system transduces?
Which sensory receptor type responds to pain or noxious stimuli?
Which sensory receptor type responds to pain or noxious stimuli?
What is the term for the strength of a particular stimulus?
What is the term for the strength of a particular stimulus?
Which sensory system transduces bitter, sweet, salty, and sour stimuli?
Which sensory system transduces bitter, sweet, salty, and sour stimuli?
Which sensory receptor type responds to changes in acidity, concentration, and molecular structure?
Which sensory receptor type responds to changes in acidity, concentration, and molecular structure?
What is the term used to describe the change in membrane potential of a sensory receptor in response to a stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the change in membrane potential of a sensory receptor in response to a stimulus?
Which type of sensory receptors are specialized to detect mechanical displacements caused by sound energy or gravity?
Which type of sensory receptors are specialized to detect mechanical displacements caused by sound energy or gravity?
What is the term used to describe the minimum intensity of stimulus energy that will cause a sufficiently large generator potential to trigger signaling via the generation of action potentials?
What is the term used to describe the minimum intensity of stimulus energy that will cause a sufficiently large generator potential to trigger signaling via the generation of action potentials?
What is the term used to describe the responsive depolarization of the trigger zone of the sensory nerve terminal?
What is the term used to describe the responsive depolarization of the trigger zone of the sensory nerve terminal?
Which type of sensory receptors generate signaling that encodes 'stimulus on' and 'stimulus off'?
Which type of sensory receptors generate signaling that encodes 'stimulus on' and 'stimulus off'?
Which type of sensory receptors generate sustained signaling as long as the stimulus is applied, with a gradual reduction in frequency?
Which type of sensory receptors generate sustained signaling as long as the stimulus is applied, with a gradual reduction in frequency?
What is the term used to describe the decreasing generator potential during a sustained stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the decreasing generator potential during a sustained stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the gradual decline in the frequency of action potentials from a receptor in response to a sustained stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the gradual decline in the frequency of action potentials from a receptor in response to a sustained stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the conversion of light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the conversion of light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the arrangement of cells in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the arrangement of cells in the retina?
Which type of neurons serve as a relay by projecting a 'tertiary fiber' into the primary sensory cortex of the brain?
Which type of neurons serve as a relay by projecting a 'tertiary fiber' into the primary sensory cortex of the brain?
What is the term used to describe the spatial domain to which an applied stimulus will trigger signaling along a particular fiber?
What is the term used to describe the spatial domain to which an applied stimulus will trigger signaling along a particular fiber?
What is the main function of the labeled line pathway in somatosensory processing?
What is the main function of the labeled line pathway in somatosensory processing?
Which pathway is responsible for transmitting peripheral somatosensory information to the brain?
Which pathway is responsible for transmitting peripheral somatosensory information to the brain?
What is the term used to describe the ordered projection of the sensory surface through the spatial arrangement of the afferent fibers?
What is the term used to describe the ordered projection of the sensory surface through the spatial arrangement of the afferent fibers?
Which type of neurons are located within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or brainstem and serve as a relay by projecting a 'secondary fiber' via an ascending tract?
Which type of neurons are located within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or brainstem and serve as a relay by projecting a 'secondary fiber' via an ascending tract?
What is the term used to describe the capability to localize a stimulus to a particular point upon the body?
What is the term used to describe the capability to localize a stimulus to a particular point upon the body?
What is the term used to describe the capability to distinguish between two separate stimuli?
What is the term used to describe the capability to distinguish between two separate stimuli?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
What is the term used to describe the decreasing generator potential during a sustained stimulus?
What is the term used to describe the decreasing generator potential during a sustained stimulus?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting fine touch, vibration, and proprioception (position sense)?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting fine touch, vibration, and proprioception (position sense)?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting pain, temperature, and crude touch?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting pain, temperature, and crude touch?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting touch information from the face?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting touch information from the face?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting touch information from the body?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting touch information from the body?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting somatosensory information from the periphery to the primary sensory cortices?
Which of the following pathways is responsible for transmitting somatosensory information from the periphery to the primary sensory cortices?
Which of the following is NOT one of the ways of modifying afferent input in the central processing of sensory information?
Which of the following is NOT one of the ways of modifying afferent input in the central processing of sensory information?
What determines the average strength of synaptic inputs on a relay neuron in the dorsal horn?
What determines the average strength of synaptic inputs on a relay neuron in the dorsal horn?
What determines the brain's perception of the specific location of a stimulus on the body surface?
What determines the brain's perception of the specific location of a stimulus on the body surface?
What is the term used to describe the process of converting light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the process of converting light energy into nervous signals in the retina?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
What is the term used to describe the span of time that a stimulus is sensed?
Which term refers to the transmission of somatosensory information into the brain via a 'multi-synaptic relay'?
Which term refers to the transmission of somatosensory information into the brain via a 'multi-synaptic relay'?
What is the function of somatosensory receptors?
What is the function of somatosensory receptors?
Which type of channels are present in the nerve endings of somatosensory receptors?
Which type of channels are present in the nerve endings of somatosensory receptors?
Where do the cell bodies of primary afferent fibers in the somatosensory pathway reside?
Where do the cell bodies of primary afferent fibers in the somatosensory pathway reside?
What is the role of the trigger zone in somatosensory neurotransmission?
What is the role of the trigger zone in somatosensory neurotransmission?
What is the main function of somatosensory pathways?
What is the main function of somatosensory pathways?
Which term describes the organization of somatosensory pathways where information is represented in a specific spatial arrangement?
Which term describes the organization of somatosensory pathways where information is represented in a specific spatial arrangement?
What is the first synapse in the somatosensory pathway?
What is the first synapse in the somatosensory pathway?
What do somatosensory receptors transduce into electrical signals?
What do somatosensory receptors transduce into electrical signals?
What determines the receptive field of somatosensory nerve endings?
What determines the receptive field of somatosensory nerve endings?
Which type of neuron releases its neurotransmitter to vary the strength of synaptic transmission from the primary afferent fiber to the second order relay neuron?
Which type of neuron releases its neurotransmitter to vary the strength of synaptic transmission from the primary afferent fiber to the second order relay neuron?
What is the function of inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn?
What is the function of inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn?
What restrains the responsiveness of dorsal horn relay neurons to afferent sensory signaling?
What restrains the responsiveness of dorsal horn relay neurons to afferent sensory signaling?
What is the purpose of feedforward inhibition in the sensory processing pathway?
What is the purpose of feedforward inhibition in the sensory processing pathway?
What is the main role of the dorsal horn interneurons in somatosensory processing?
What is the main role of the dorsal horn interneurons in somatosensory processing?
What happens to the transmission of afferent signaling along a 'line' due to input from inhibitory interneurons?
What happens to the transmission of afferent signaling along a 'line' due to input from inhibitory interneurons?
What is the purpose of feedback inhibition in the sensory processing pathway?
What is the purpose of feedback inhibition in the sensory processing pathway?
What is the effect of inhibitory interneurons on the transmission of afferent signaling in the dorsal horn?
What is the effect of inhibitory interneurons on the transmission of afferent signaling in the dorsal horn?
What is the role of local interneurons in the dorsal horn?
What is the role of local interneurons in the dorsal horn?
What is the effect of inhibitory interneurons on transmission from relay neurons that receive input from receptive fields surrounding the central point of a stimulus?
What is the effect of inhibitory interneurons on transmission from relay neurons that receive input from receptive fields surrounding the central point of a stimulus?
Which type of thermoreceptor is less sensitive to temperature change than cold receptors?
Which type of thermoreceptor is less sensitive to temperature change than cold receptors?
What is the temperature threshold for warm receptors to report an increase in temperature?
What is the temperature threshold for warm receptors to report an increase in temperature?
Which type of nociceptor generates the perception of pain to heat?
Which type of nociceptor generates the perception of pain to heat?
What is the stimulus threshold that differentiates a nociceptor from a non-nociceptive somatosensory receptor?
What is the stimulus threshold that differentiates a nociceptor from a non-nociceptive somatosensory receptor?
Which fibers convey the sharp, short-lasting sensation of pain?
Which fibers convey the sharp, short-lasting sensation of pain?
Which fibers convey the dull or diffuse sensation of pain?
Which fibers convey the dull or diffuse sensation of pain?
What is the term used to describe the initial sharp pain conveyed by Ad fibers?
What is the term used to describe the initial sharp pain conveyed by Ad fibers?
What is the term used to describe the longer duration, duller sensation of pain conveyed by C fibers?
What is the term used to describe the longer duration, duller sensation of pain conveyed by C fibers?
What type of receptors are polymodal receptors?
What type of receptors are polymodal receptors?
What type of receptors respond to mechanical and thermal nociceptors?
What type of receptors respond to mechanical and thermal nociceptors?
Which type of sensory receptors are responsible for detecting pain?
Which type of sensory receptors are responsible for detecting pain?
Which of the following senses is NOT considered a general sense?
Which of the following senses is NOT considered a general sense?
Which part of the body has thick skin that is glabrous and nonhairy?
Which part of the body has thick skin that is glabrous and nonhairy?
What is the function of the somatosensory system?
What is the function of the somatosensory system?
Which layer of the skin is primarily composed of stratified squamous epithelium?
Which layer of the skin is primarily composed of stratified squamous epithelium?
Which type of sensory receptor is responsible for detecting texture and shape?
Which type of sensory receptor is responsible for detecting texture and shape?
Which part of the skin is loaded with sensory receptors?
Which part of the skin is loaded with sensory receptors?
What are the three classes of receptors in the somatosensory system?
What are the three classes of receptors in the somatosensory system?
Which part of the body has thin skin that is hairy and found everywhere except palms and soles?
Which part of the body has thin skin that is hairy and found everywhere except palms and soles?
What is the function of the fascia in the body?
What is the function of the fascia in the body?
What is the classification of peripheral fibers conveying non-proprioceptive somatosensory afferent signals?
What is the classification of peripheral fibers conveying non-proprioceptive somatosensory afferent signals?
Which mechanoreceptor type is responsible for transmitting 'light touch' sensations?
Which mechanoreceptor type is responsible for transmitting 'light touch' sensations?
Which type of thermoreceptors are most sensitive to changes in temperature?
Which type of thermoreceptors are most sensitive to changes in temperature?
Which statement about thermoreceptors is correct?
Which statement about thermoreceptors is correct?
What is the main function of mechanoreceptors in the skin and fascia?
What is the main function of mechanoreceptors in the skin and fascia?
Which type of mechanoreceptor has a small receptive field and is rapidly adapting?
Which type of mechanoreceptor has a small receptive field and is rapidly adapting?
Which type of receptor is responsible for detecting surface texture of objects?
Which type of receptor is responsible for detecting surface texture of objects?
What is the role of the labeled line pathway in somatosensory processing?
What is the role of the labeled line pathway in somatosensory processing?
Which statement about thermoreceptors is correct?
Which statement about thermoreceptors is correct?
What is the main function of the endogenous analgesic system?
What is the main function of the endogenous analgesic system?
Which part of the ear is responsible for transducing vibrations of the basilar membrane into action potentials?
Which part of the ear is responsible for transducing vibrations of the basilar membrane into action potentials?
What is the function of the tympanic membrane in the ear?
What is the function of the tympanic membrane in the ear?
Which part of the ear is responsible for fine tuning and amplifying the vibrations of the air?
Which part of the ear is responsible for fine tuning and amplifying the vibrations of the air?
What is the function of the membranes covering the oval and round windows in the ear?
What is the function of the membranes covering the oval and round windows in the ear?
Which muscle contracts longitudinally and thickens due to shortening, pushing against the wall of the Eustachian tube when swallowing?
Which muscle contracts longitudinally and thickens due to shortening, pushing against the wall of the Eustachian tube when swallowing?
What are the parts of the auricle (pinna) in the ear?
What are the parts of the auricle (pinna) in the ear?
What is the function of the auricle (pinna) in the ear?
What is the function of the auricle (pinna) in the ear?
Which bone in the middle ear is attached to the tympanic membrane?
Which bone in the middle ear is attached to the tympanic membrane?
Which part of the ear contains the organs of hearing and balance?
Which part of the ear contains the organs of hearing and balance?
Which muscle simultaneously pulls on the opposing wall of the Eustachian tube when swallowing?
Which muscle simultaneously pulls on the opposing wall of the Eustachian tube when swallowing?
Which bone in the middle ear articulates with the head of the malleus and the small lenticular process articulates with the stapes head?
Which bone in the middle ear articulates with the head of the malleus and the small lenticular process articulates with the stapes head?
Which nerve provides sensory innervation to the posterior surface and concha of the external ear?
Which nerve provides sensory innervation to the posterior surface and concha of the external ear?
Which muscle increases tension on the tympanic membrane by pulling the handle of the malleus medially in loud environments?
Which muscle increases tension on the tympanic membrane by pulling the handle of the malleus medially in loud environments?
What is the composition of the tympanic membrane?
What is the composition of the tympanic membrane?
What is the function of the tragus in the external ear?
What is the function of the tragus in the external ear?
Which bone in the middle ear fits in the oval window of the inner ear?
Which bone in the middle ear fits in the oval window of the inner ear?
What is the purpose of the pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) in the middle ear?
What is the purpose of the pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) in the middle ear?
Which muscle lessens vibrations of the stapes bone by pulling it posteriorly, tipping the bone away from the oval window during explosive sounds?
Which muscle lessens vibrations of the stapes bone by pulling it posteriorly, tipping the bone away from the oval window during explosive sounds?
What is the function of the middle ear?
What is the function of the middle ear?
What is the function of the ossicles in the middle ear?
What is the function of the ossicles in the middle ear?
What is the purpose of the pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) in the middle ear?
What is the purpose of the pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) in the middle ear?
Which cranial nerve supplies both the vestibular and cochlear structures in the inner ear?
Which cranial nerve supplies both the vestibular and cochlear structures in the inner ear?
Which part of the inner ear senses change in linear motion and gravity?
Which part of the inner ear senses change in linear motion and gravity?
Which part of the inner ear senses change in angular acceleration or rotation of the head?
Which part of the inner ear senses change in angular acceleration or rotation of the head?
Which structure in the inner ear contains otoliths embedded in a gelatinous material on top of receptor cells?
Which structure in the inner ear contains otoliths embedded in a gelatinous material on top of receptor cells?
Which cranial nerve supplies the majority of the pain from otitis media?
Which cranial nerve supplies the majority of the pain from otitis media?
Which condition is characterized by otoliths becoming dislodged and ending up in a semicircular canal?
Which condition is characterized by otoliths becoming dislodged and ending up in a semicircular canal?
Which cranial nerve is involved in equilibrium and inner ear function?
Which cranial nerve is involved in equilibrium and inner ear function?
Which cranial nerve carries preganglionic parasympathetics to the otic ganglion?
Which cranial nerve carries preganglionic parasympathetics to the otic ganglion?
Which structure in the inner ear widens at the ampulla and has ridges called crista where the receptors are located?
Which structure in the inner ear widens at the ampulla and has ridges called crista where the receptors are located?
Flashcards
Analgesia
Analgesia
Pain relief or reduction in pain sensation.
Nociceptive pain
Nociceptive pain
Pain primarily caused by injury or damage to tissues.
Allodynia
Allodynia
Pain due to a stimulus that normally does not cause pain.
Central pain
Central pain
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Hyperalgesia
Hyperalgesia
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Chronic pain
Chronic pain
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Radiculitis
Radiculitis
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Spinothalamic pathway
Spinothalamic pathway
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Cingulate gyrus
Cingulate gyrus
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Interneurons
Interneurons
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Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)
Congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP)
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Substance P
Substance P
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A-delta fibers
A-delta fibers
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C-fibers
C-fibers
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Gate Control Theory of Pain
Gate Control Theory of Pain
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Referred pain
Referred pain
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Descending signals
Descending signals
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Neurotransmitters in pain pathways
Neurotransmitters in pain pathways
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Retina
Retina
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Phototransduction
Phototransduction
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Myopia
Myopia
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Photoreceptors
Photoreceptors
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Rods and cones
Rods and cones
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Glutamate
Glutamate
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Magnocellular pathway
Magnocellular pathway
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Center-surround receptive fields
Center-surround receptive fields
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Hair cells
Hair cells
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Organ of Corti
Organ of Corti
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Study Notes
Pain and Nociception
- Analgesia refers to pain relief or decrease.
- Nociceptive pain is primarily caused by injury or damage to body tissues.
- Allodynia describes pain due to a stimulus that typically does not provoke pain.
- Central pain originates from disorders in the central nervous system, such as a stroke or multiple sclerosis.
- Hyperalgesia refers to an increased sensitivity of nociceptors resulting in heightened pain perception.
- Chronic pain can arise from processes such as nerve damage or prolonged inflammation, lasting more than 3-6 months.
- Radiculitis refers to inflammation of a nerve root.
- The spinothalamic pathway transmits pain and temperature signals to the postcentral gyrus.
- The cingulate gyrus plays a key role in emotional response and processing related to pain.
- The hypothalamus is responsible for autonomic responses to pain.
- Interneurons are located in the spinal cord and modulate the transmission of pain signals.
- Individuals who are congenitally insensitive to pain are termed congenital insensitivity to pain (CIP).
- Those with CIP may sustain frequent injuries due to lack of pain perception.
- CIP can result in life-threatening conditions, often from untreated injuries or infections.
- Substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) are involved in transmitting pain signals in nociceptors.
- A-delta fibers relay sharp, fast pain sensations, while C-fibers convey dull, throbbing pain.
- Sudden painful stimulation activates nociceptors, leading to a reflexive response.
- The Gate Control Theory of Pain suggests that non-painful stimuli can close the "gate" on pain pathways.
- Referred pain occurs when pain is perceived at a location other than the site of the injury.
- Abnormal discharges in the nervous system can arise from conditions like neuropathy or chronic pain syndromes.
- Descending signals stimulating inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord originate in the brainstem and cerebral cortex.
- Inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord reduce pain signal transmission.
- Neurotransmitters released in descending pain pathways include serotonin, norepinephrine, and opioids.
- Opioid peptides block pain transmission by inhibiting nociceptive signaling in the spinal cord.
Visual Processing
- The retina transduces light energy into nervous signals.
- Phototransduction describes the conversion of light energy into nervous signals in the retina.
- The ** binocular visual field** is the area seen by both eyes, while monocular regions are visible to only one eye.
- Right and left hemifields each have monocular regions spanning approximately 30 degrees.
- The visual field arc encompasses the entire range of view provided by the eyes.
- The lens focuses light onto the retina.
- Myopia is the condition where the image is formed in front of the retina.
- The cornea refracts light to create a focused image on the retina.
- The left hemifield of visual space is processed by the right hemisphere of the visual cortex.
- The retinal cell arrangement involves distinct layers including photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells.
- Bipolar cells in the retina transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells.
- Photoreceptors (rods and cones) generate nervous signals for transmission via the optic nerve.
- Muller cells support and maintain the structure of the retina.
- Rods are responsible for scotopic vision (night vision); cones are responsible for color and high acuity vision.
- The phototransduction cascade involves a series of biochemical events converting light into electrical signals.
- In low light, photoreceptors maintain a depolarized membrane potential, releasing neurotransmitters.
- In bright light, photoreceptors hyperpolarize, reducing neurotransmitter release.
- cGMP regulates the membrane potential by controlling the opening of Na+ channels in photoreceptors.
- Dark current refers to Na+ entry through open channels in photoreceptors in low light.
- In high light, Na+ conductance decreases due to the closure of channels.
- Increasing illumination results in decreased neurotransmitter release due to hyperpolarization.
- Decreasing illumination causes increased neurotransmitter release as photoreceptors depolarize.
- Glutamate is crucial in the visual processing pathway, influencing bipolar and ganglion cell signaling.
Ganglion Cell and Retinal Processing
- ON bipolar cells respond positively to glutamate, while OFF bipolar cells show a negative response.
- Ganglion cells react to glutamate with varying levels of firing based on stimulus location in their receptive fields.
- The ON and OFF columns of retinal cells allow for enhanced sensitivity to changes in light conditions.
- Center-surround receptive field organization in ganglion cells enhances contrast detection.
- Horizontal cells in the retina modulate neurotransmitter release for better visual adaptation.
- The Magnocellular pathway processes motion and aspect of visual detail, while the Parvocellular pathway focuses on color and spatial resolution.
- Convergence in visual processing increases perceptive capability for spatial and temporal cues.
- Cues such as depth, shadows, and constancy are leveraged by the visual system to interpret spatial relationships.
- The outer, middle, and inner parts of the ear collect and transmit sound.
- Loudness perceptions are influenced by the amplitude of air vibrations, while pitch is determined by frequency.
- Two types of fluid in the cochlea include perilymph (scala vestibuli and scala tympani) and endolymph (scala media).
- Hair cells detect sound vibrations, converting them into electrochemical signals.
- The organ of Corti houses the sensory apparatus for sound transduction in the cochlea.
- The basilar membrane plays a critical role in differentiating sound frequencies through vibration.
- Hair cells are located in the cochlea's organ of Corti and are essential for hearing functionality.
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Description
Test your knowledge on substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and their role in nociceptors. Learn about the different fiber types and how they are activated by inflammatory chemistry. Explore how sensory fibers report to the dorsal horn or brainstem nuclei and discover the effects of stimulating mechanoreceptors through various methods. Take the quiz now to assess your understanding of these important pain-related molecules and mechanisms.
