Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is a common cause of conductive hearing loss?
What is a common cause of conductive hearing loss?
- Aging
- Impacted cerumen (correct)
- Noise exposure
- Diabetes mellitus
Which condition is characterized by age-related hearing loss, especially in high frequencies?
Which condition is characterized by age-related hearing loss, especially in high frequencies?
- Presbycusis (correct)
- Tinnitus
- Conductive hearing loss
- Sensorineural hearing loss
What may be a long-term consequence of shift work sleep disorder?
What may be a long-term consequence of shift work sleep disorder?
- Improved cognitive function
- Heightened performance in psychomotor tasks
- Enhanced vigilance
- Increased risk of cardiovascular disease (correct)
What typically occurs in an individual with conductive hearing loss in noisy environments?
What typically occurs in an individual with conductive hearing loss in noisy environments?
What is one of the main impairments in sensorineural hearing loss?
What is one of the main impairments in sensorineural hearing loss?
Which of the following is NOT a common cause of sensorineural hearing loss?
Which of the following is NOT a common cause of sensorineural hearing loss?
What is the leading cause of visual impairment and blindness?
What is the leading cause of visual impairment and blindness?
Which of these factors is associated with presbycusis?
Which of these factors is associated with presbycusis?
What is the primary role of neutrophils in early inflammation?
What is the primary role of neutrophils in early inflammation?
Which of the following is NOT a cardinal sign of inflammation?
Which of the following is NOT a cardinal sign of inflammation?
How does vasodilation contribute to the inflammatory response?
How does vasodilation contribute to the inflammatory response?
What differentiates adaptive immunity from inflammation?
What differentiates adaptive immunity from inflammation?
Which biochemical mediators are involved in causing pain during inflammation?
Which biochemical mediators are involved in causing pain during inflammation?
What characterizes the inflammatory response compared to the adaptive immune response?
What characterizes the inflammatory response compared to the adaptive immune response?
What occurs immediately after tissue damage that involves innate immunity?
What occurs immediately after tissue damage that involves innate immunity?
Which of the following best describes the functioning of inflammation?
Which of the following best describes the functioning of inflammation?
What is the primary function of nociceptors?
What is the primary function of nociceptors?
Which characteristic distinguishes chronic pain from acute pain?
Which characteristic distinguishes chronic pain from acute pain?
Where are nociceptors primarily located?
Where are nociceptors primarily located?
Which statement correctly describes acute pain?
Which statement correctly describes acute pain?
What is a common clinical sign associated with acute pain?
What is a common clinical sign associated with acute pain?
How does chronic pain typically respond to treatment compared to acute pain?
How does chronic pain typically respond to treatment compared to acute pain?
What can be said about the distribution of nociceptors throughout the body?
What can be said about the distribution of nociceptors throughout the body?
What is a typical feature of acute pain compared to chronic pain?
What is a typical feature of acute pain compared to chronic pain?
What distinguishes a coup injury from a contrecoup injury?
What distinguishes a coup injury from a contrecoup injury?
Which of the following is a primary cause of secondary brain injury?
Which of the following is a primary cause of secondary brain injury?
Which of these statements about subdural hematoma (SDH) is incorrect?
Which of these statements about subdural hematoma (SDH) is incorrect?
What role do inflammatory mediators play in migraines?
What role do inflammatory mediators play in migraines?
How is a cluster headache primarily characterized?
How is a cluster headache primarily characterized?
What is a key factor that contributes to secondary brain injury after a primary injury?
What is a key factor that contributes to secondary brain injury after a primary injury?
Which of the following correctly describes an epidural hematoma (EDH)?
Which of the following correctly describes an epidural hematoma (EDH)?
Which systemic process is NOT a contributing factor to secondary brain injury?
Which systemic process is NOT a contributing factor to secondary brain injury?
What type of cells do Tc cells specifically target?
What type of cells do Tc cells specifically target?
Which mechanism do bacteria utilize to evade the immune response?
Which mechanism do bacteria utilize to evade the immune response?
What is a characteristic of viral pathogens during their replication process?
What is a characteristic of viral pathogens during their replication process?
What is one common strategy used by bacteria to survive despite immune defenses?
What is one common strategy used by bacteria to survive despite immune defenses?
What role do capsules play in bacterial evasion of the immune system?
What role do capsules play in bacterial evasion of the immune system?
How quickly can some bacteria, such as E. coli, replicate?
How quickly can some bacteria, such as E. coli, replicate?
What is the primary structure of a virus, also known as a virion?
What is the primary structure of a virus, also known as a virion?
What is antibiotic resistance primarily associated with?
What is antibiotic resistance primarily associated with?
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Study Notes
Pain
- Nociceptors are sensory receptors that detect painful stimuli
- They are located in the skin, muscles, joints, bones, and organs
- Nociceptors are activated by painful stimuli and send signals to the spinal cord
- They are not evenly distributed throughout the body (e.g. fingertips have many, cartilage has none)
Acute vs Chronic Pain
- Acute pain is a warning mechanism of potential or current injury with a known source
- Chronic pain has an unknown source or the treatment is ineffective
- Acute pain has a transient duration (up to 6 months), while chronic pain is prolonged (months to years)
Sensory Function
Hearing
- Conductive hearing loss happens when there is interference with air conduction (e.g., impacted cerumen, foreign objects)
- Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by impairment of the organ of Corti or its connections (e.g., congenital factors, noise exposure, aging)
- Presbycusis is age-related hearing loss usually in high frequencies
Vision
- Glaucoma is a leading cause of visual impairment and blindness
Secondary Brain Injury
- It's an indirect consequence of primary brain injury causing a cascade of events that last for hours to days
- Systemic factors include hypotension, hypoxia, anemia, ischemia, hypercapnia, and hypocapnia
- Cerebral factors include inflammation, cerebral edema, increased intracranial pressure, microthrombosis, decreased cerebral perfusion pressure, cerebral ischemia, and brain herniation
Headachse
- Migraines are associated with activation of the trigeminovascular system and changes in brain metabolism and blood flow
- Cluster headaches belong to a group called trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, with activation of the trigeminovascular system and release of pain-producing vasoactive peptides
Inflammation
Invasion and Evasion of Organisms
Bacteria Invasion
- Bacteria replicate quickly (e.g., E.Coli can divide every 20 minutes)
- They can evade inflammatory and immune defenses by:
- Digesting immunoglobulins and cytokines
- Developing capsules that hinder phagocytosis
- Increasing virulence through mutation
- Developing antibiotic resistance
Virus Invasion
- Viruses lack metabolic organelles found in bacteria or eukaryotes
- They replicate by infecting a permissive host cell and destroying or damaging cells
- Viruses consist of nucleic acid protected by a protein shell (capsid) and may have a protective envelope
- They contain enzymes that drive viral replication
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