Pahari Painting Schools

• Pahari denotes ‘hilly or mountainous'
• Pahari Schools of Painting includes towns in the hills of western Himalayas, such as Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, and Jammu
• These towns emerged as centres of painting from seventeenth to nineteenth century
• Painting began at Basohli with a coarsely flamboyant style
• It blossomed into the most exquisite and sophisticated style of Indian painting known as the Kangra School, through the Guler or pre-Kangra phase
• Pahari paintings demonstrate challenges in their territorial classification, unlike Mughal, Deccani and Rajasthani Schools which have stylistic features that distinguish them
• All the above centres crafted precise individualistic characteristics in painting through depictions of nature, architecture, figural types, facial features, costumes, preference for particular colours
• They do not develop as independent schools with distinctive styles
• Paucity of dated material, colophons and inscriptions prevent informed categorisation
• The emergence of the Pahari School remains unclear
• Scholars have cautiously proposed theories concerning its beginning and influences
• Mughal and Rajasthani styles of paintings were known in the hills probably through examples of Provincial Mughal style and family relationships of hill Rajas with the royal courts of Rajasthan
• The flamboyantly bold Basohli-like style is understood to be the earliest prevailing pictorial language
• B. N. Goswamy has attributed the shaping of Pahari style from the simplicity of Basohli to poetic lyricism and refinement of Kangra to the ingenuity of a family of artists through his scholarly approach of family as the basis of style
• The family of Pandit Seu (Shiv) was chiefly responsible for the course of Pahari paintings, identifying Pahari paintings on the basis of regions could be misleading as political boundaries were always fluid

The Seu Family

• In the early eighteenth century, the style of the Seu family and others conformed to the Basohli idiom
• From middle of the eighteenth century, the style transformed through a pre-Kangra phase, maturing into the Kangra style
• This abrupt transformation in style and beginning of experimentation, which gave rise to varied stylistic idioms related to different Pahari centres, is ascribed to responses by various artist families and paintings introduced in the Pahari kingdoms, especially the Mughal style
• The sudden arrival of paintings, introduced through rulers, artists, traders, impacted local artists and profoundly influenced their painting language
• Most scholars dispute the earlier hypothesis that the sudden change was caused and initiated by the migration of artists from the Mughal atelier
• For B.N. Goswamy, it was the naturalism in these paintings that appealed to the sensibilities of Pahari artists
• Compositions, worked out from a relative point of view, show some paintings with decorated margins
• Themes included recording the daily routine or important occasions from the lives of kings, creation of new prototype for female form and an idealised face, are all associated with this newly emerging style that gradually matures to the Kangra phase

Basohli School

• The first and most dramatic example of work from the hill states is from Basohli
• From 1678 to 1695, Kirpal Pal, an enlightened prince, ruled the state
• Under Kirpal Pal, Basohli developed a distinctive and magnificent style
• It is characterised by a strong use of primary colours and warm yellows-filling the background and horizon, stylised treatment of vegetation and raised white paint for imitating the representation of pearls in ornaments
• The most significant characteristic of Basohli painting is the use of small, shiny green particles of beetle wings to delineate jewellery and simulate the effect of emeralds
• In their vibrant palette and elegance, they share the aesthetics of the Chaurpanchashika group of paintings of Western India
• The most popular theme of Basohli painters was the Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta
• In 1694–95, Devida, a tarkhan (carpenter-painter), did a magnificent series for his patron Kirpal Pal
• Bhagvata Purana and Ragamala were other popular themes
• Artists also painted portraits of local kings with their consorts, courtiers, astrologers, mendicants

Styles of painting

• Artist ateliers from Basohli, gradually, spread to other hill states, such as Chamba and Kullu, giving rise to local variations of the Basohli kalam
• A new style of painting came in vogue during 1690s to 1730s, referred to as the Guler-Kangra phase
• Artists during this period indulged in experimentation and improvisations that finally resulted and moulded into the Kangra style
• The style gradually spread to states of Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler and Kangra
• The Sanskrit epic, Ramayana, was one of the favourite texts of the hill artists at Basohli, as well as, Kullu
• This set derives its name from ‘Shangri', the place of residence of a branch of the Kullu royal family, patrons and formerly possessors of this set
• These works of Kullu artists were influenced in varying degrees by the styles of Basohli and Bilaspur

Additional paintings

• Another painting from the same set depicts Rama and Lakshmana accompanying sage Vishvamitra to the forest to defeat the demons, who would distress the hermits by disturbing their meditative practices and contaminating their rituals
• An interesting feature of this painting is the representation of animals, stealthily prowling behind trees, half hidden in the heavy outgrowth
• The artist lends character to the forest as a thick impenetrable jungle, populated with ferocious animals hiding everywhere, and adds an emotive value to the painting regarding the extraordinary courage of the two young princes
• The fractional representation of animals adds mystery to the work as there is a possibility of them being demons in disguise

Guler School

• The first quarter of the eighteenth century saw a complete transformation in the Basohli style, initiating the Guler-Kangra phase
• This phase first appeared in Guler, a high-ranking branch of the Kangra royal family, under the patronage of Raja Govardhan Chand (1744–1773)
• Guler artist Pandit Seu with his sons Manak and Nainsukh are attributed with changing the course of painting around 1730–40 to a new style, usually, referred to as the pre-Kangra or Guler-Kangra kalam
• This style is more refined, subdued and elegant compared to the bold vitality of the Basohli style
• Though initiated by Manak, also called Manaku, his brother Nainsukh, who became the court painter of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota, is responsible for shaping the Guler School emphatically
• The most matured version of this style entered Kangra during the 1780s, thus, developing into the Kangra School while the offshoots of Basohli continued in Chamba and Kullu, India

Sons of Manak and Nainsukh

• Sons and grandsons of Manak and Nainsukh worked at many other centres and are responsible for the finest examples of Pahari paintings
• Guler appears to have a long tradition of paintings amongst all Pahari schools
• There is evidence that artists were working in Haripur-Guler ever since the reign of Dalip Singh (1695–1743) as many of his and his son Bishan Singh's portraits, dating back to earlier than 1730s, i.e., before the beginning of the Guler-Kangra phase can be found
• Bishan Singh died during the lifetime of his father Dalip Singh
• His younger brother Govardhan Chand ascended to the throne that witnessed a change in painting style
• Manak's most outstanding work is a set of Gita Govinda painted in 1730 at Guler, retaining some of the elements of the Basohli style, most strikingly the lavish use of beetle's wing casings
• Nainsukh appears to have left his hometown in Guler and moved to Jasrota
• He is believed to have initially worked for Mian Zoravar Singh, whose son and successor Balwant Singh of Jasrota was to become his greatest patron
• Nainsukh's celebrated pictures of Balwant Singh are unique in the kind of visual record they offer of the patron's life
• Balwant Singh is portrayed engaged in various activities performing puja, surveying a building site, sitting in a camp wrapped in a quilt because of the cold weather, and so on.
• The artist gratified his patron's obsession by painting him on every possible occasion
• Nainsukh's genius was for individual portraiture that became a salient feature of the later Pahari style
• His palette comprised delicate pastel shades with daring expanses of white or grey
• Manaku, too, did numerous portraits of his enthusiastic patron Raja Govardhan Chand and his family
• Prakash Chand, successor of Govardhan Chand, shared his father's passion for art and had sons of Manaku and Nainsukh, Khushala, Fattu and Gaudhu as artists in his court

Kangra School

• Painting in the Kangra region blossomed under the patronage of a remarkable ruler, Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823)
• It is believed that when Prakash Chand of Guler came under grave financial crisis and could no longer maintain his atelier, his master artist, Manaku, and his sons took service under Sansar Chand of Kangra
• Sansar Chand ascended to the throne at the tender age of 10 years after the kingdom had been restored to its earlier glory by his grandfather Ghamand Chand
• They belonged to the Katoch dynasty of rulers, who had been ruling the Kangra region for a long time until Jahangir conquered their territory in the seventeenth century and made them his vassals
• After the decline of the Mughal power, Raja Ghamand Chand recovered most of the territory and founded his capital town of Tira Sujanpur on the banks of river Beas and constructed fine monuments
• He also maintained an atelier of artists

Painting locations

• Raja Sansar Chand established supremacy of Kangra over all surrounding hill states
• Tira Sujanpur emerged as the most prolific centre of painting under his patronage
• An earlier phase of Kangra kalam paintings is witnessed in Alampur
• The most matured paintings were painted at Nadaun, where Sansar Chand shifted later in his life
• All these centres were on the banks of river Beas
• Less number of paintings was done in Kangra as it remained under the Mughals till 1786, and later, the Sikhs
• Sansar Chand's son Aniruddha Chand (1823–1831), too, was a generous patron and is often seen painted with his courtiers
• The Kangra style is by far the most poetic and lyrical of Indian styles marked with serene beauty and delicacy of execution
• Characteristic features of the Kangra style are delicacy of line, brilliance of colour and minuteness of decorative details
• Distinctive is the delineation of the female face, with straight nose in line with the forehead
• Most popular themes that were painted were the Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala and Baramasa
• Many other paintings comprise a pictorial record of Sansar Chand and his court.
• Fattu, Purkhu and Khushala are important painters of the Kangra style

The Kangra School

• During Sansar Chand's reign, the production of Kangra School was far greater than any other hill state
• He exercised wide political power and was able to support a large studio with artists from Guler and other areas
• The Kangra style soon spread from Tira Sujanpur to Garhwal in the east and Kashmir in the west
• Painting activity was severely affected around 1805 when the Gurkhas besieged the Kangra fort and Sansar Chand had to flee to his hill palace at Tira Sujanpur. In 1809, with the help of Ranjit Singh, the Gurkhas were driven away
• Though Sansar Chand continued to maintain his atelier of artists, the work no longer paralleled masterpieces of the period 1785–1805
• This series of Bhagvata Purana paintings is one of the greatest achievements of Kangra artists
• It is remarkable for its effortless naturalism, deft and vivid rendering of figures in unusual poses that crisply portray dramatic scenes
• The principal master is believed to have been a descendent of Nainsukh, commanding much of his skill
• The painting is a depiction from Rasa Panchdhyayi, a group of five chapters from the Bhagvata Purana devoted to the philosophical concept of Rasa

Gopis

• The gopis take on different roles and emulate his divine sports
• The artist captures and evokes these sensitive images exquisitely in this folio
• On the extreme left, a gopi enacts Krishna's part as she bends forward and appears to suck the bosom of another gopi, who plays the role of Putana
• Another gopi enacts the character of Yashoda, who along with other gopis, holds out her garment in a gesture of removing the evil eye after the young Krishna performed the brave feat of killing Putana
• In the group beside this towards the right, a gopi enacts the mortar to which another gopi, who plays the role of young Krishna, is tied with a cloth band, while his mother admonishingly stands holding a stick in her hands
• In the adjoining group, a gopi, sporting a turban, lifts her piled up odhni atop in the guise of lifting Mount Govardhan, while others seek protection underneath
• To the extreme left in the bottom, a gopi enacts Krishna, who is playing flute, as some gopis dance and sing, and others crawl towards him, disentangling themselves from their angry mothers-in-law, who try to drag and hold them back from going
• In the most magnificent of these cameos to the extreme bottom in the right, a gopi hurls a blue garment edged with gold over the ground, which takes the form of the multiple hooded serpent Kaliya, upon whom she dances like Krishna

Depictions of Heroines

• Depiction of Ashta Nayikas or eight heroines is one of the most painted themes in Pahari paintings, involving the depiction of women in various dispositions and emotive states
• Utka is the one who is anticipating the arrival of her beloved and patiently waits for him
• Svandhinpatika is the one whose husband is subject to her will
• Vasaksajja awaits her beloved's return from a voyage and decorates the bed with flowers in a welcoming gesture
• Kalahantarita is the one who resists her beloved when he seeks to soften her pride and repents when he comes late
• Abhisarika is one who hastens to meet her beloved braving all hazards
• The situation conceived is, generally, full of bizarre and dramatic possibilities with the passion and steadfastness of the nayika, triumphing against the opposing elements of nature
• Broad iconography of the Abhisarika remains much the same, but painters vary their renderings in some measure
• The Baramasa paintings, consisting of 12 folios, illustrating the modes of love or courtship appropriate to each month of the year had become a popular theme in the hills during the nineteenth century
• An account of Baramasa is given by Keshav Das in the tenth chapter of Kavipriya
• The Kangra School came to fore in the 1780s while the offshoots of the Basohli style emerged and continued in centres such as Chamba, Kullu, Nurpur, Mankot, Jasrota, Mandi, Bilaspur, Jammu and others with some of their specific characteristics
• The Sikhs employed other Kangra painters eventually.
• There is a broad classification of three styles-Basohli, Guler and Kangra, and scholars may have variant terms for the same
• In Jasrota, as one observes the Guler style, it becomes categorised under the Guler School with Jasrota as one of its centres.
• One finds portraits of the rulers of Chamba in the seventeenth and early eighteenth century in the Basohli style
• Kullu emerged with a distinctive style, where figures had a prominent chin and wide open eyes, and lavish use of grey and terracotta red colours in the background was made
• Shangri Ramayana is a well-known set painted in the Kullu Valley in the last quarter of the seventeenth century
• Due to marital relations between Basohli and Mankot, few artists from Basohli seem to have shifted to Mankot, thereby, developing a similar school of painting
• While Jasrota had an indulgent patron in Balwant Singh and the school is well-known through his numerous portraits painted by his court artist, Nainsukh, who led the earlier simple Basohli style to new sophistication
• Rulers of Mandi were ardent worshippers of Vishnu and Shiva
• An artist named Molaram is associated with the Garhwal School

The artist Pandit Seu

• Artist Pandit Seu had two talented sons, Manak or Manaku and Nainsukh
• Their contribution in maneuvering the style of Pahari painting from the stage of Basohli to that of Kangra is immense
• This painting is categorised in the Guler-Kangra phase, wherein, experimentation for change had already been initiated
• Gita Govinda is Manaku's most outstanding set of works
• This painting depicts Radha as shy and hesitant as she approaches the forested area, while Krishna is seen eagerly waiting for her

Balwant and Nainsukh painting

• The painting depicts Prince Balwant Singh of Jasrota closely observing a painting that he is holding in his hands
• A figure standing behind him politely bowing down probably represents none other than the artist of the painting, Nainsukh
• This painting is probably a rare, where Nainsukh paints himself with his patron
• Balwant Singh is seated in his palace, overlooking the lush green landscape teeming with trees
• Nainsukh's clutter-free composition is itself indicative of quietude, peace and tranquillity
• In the painting, Balwant Singh is smoking hukka, something that, he usually, indulged in during spells of break between work

Other Artists

• This painting also illustrates a scene from the Bhagvata Purana and depicts Nanda with his family and relatives, travelling to Vrindavan -Kangra painters acutely observe the landscape and represent it naturalistically
• One also observes a flush-cut composition, resembling a photograph, which lends naturalism to the painting.