Overview of Historical Civilizations

Slavery was a fundamental part of Athenian society during the Classical Period (5th-4th century BCE). Enslaved people performed various tasks, including labor and domestic work, and were crucial to the Athenian economy.

A fundamental relationship in geometry, connecting the sides of a right-angled triangle.

A form of government in ancient Rome (509 BCE–27 BCE) where power was shared between different groups, like the Senate and the citizens.

Different levels of citizenship in Rome, offering varying rights and privileges; full citizens had voting rights, while others might have partial citizenship.

Series of wars between Rome and Carthage. Rome's military successes greatly expanded their empire.

Victories brought wealth, slaves, and resources, but also created social inequality.

A powerful governing body in the Roman Republic, responsible for many decisions.

Important Greek philosopher and mathematician known for the Pythagorean theorem.

A powerful political body advising magistrates and influencing Roman laws.

Rome's highest magistrates, commanding armies and governing.

Rome's aristocratic class holding significant political power.

The commoner class in Rome, initially excluded from power.

Rome offered different levels of citizenship and control to conquered regions.

A powerful Roman general and statesman who helped end the Republic.

The first Roman Emperor who rose to power after Caesar's death.

The struggle between patricians and plebeians for political rights in the Roman Republic.

First Roman emperor (63 BCE–14 CE), who stabilized Rome after civil war.

Controversial Roman emperor (37–68 CE, reigned 54–68 CE) known for possible tyranny and artistic ambitions.

Ancient Semitic people who established monotheism through their covenant with God.

Patriarch in Hebrew tradition, considered the father of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Mountain where Moses received the Ten Commandments, symbolizing the covenant between God and Israelites.

God's name in Hebrew tradition, representing monotheism.

Period of peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire under Augustus.

Moral and legal code received by Moses at Mt. Sinai, foundational to Judaism and Christianity.

A Hebrew prophet and lawgiver who led the Israelites out of Egyptian slavery and received the Ten Commandments. He is credited with establishing the Mosaic Law.

Prophecies in the Hebrew Bible that foretell the coming of a savior or 'Messiah' to restore Israel.

A Christian sacrament that commemorates the Last Supper, where bread and wine symbolize the body and blood of Jesus Christ.

A Roman emperor who legalized Christianity and supported its growth. He is credited with playing a key role in the spread of Christianity.

A proclamation issued by Constantine and Licinius in 313 CE that granted religious tolerance within the Roman Empire, allowing Christians freedom of worship.

A city in Saudi Arabia and the holiest site in Islam. It is the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad and the location of the Kaaba, a cube-shaped building that Muslims circumambulate during the Hajj pilgrimage.

A cube-shaped building in Mecca, the holiest place in Islam, that Muslims believe was built by Abraham and his son Ishmael. Muslims circumambulate the Kaaba during the Hajj pilgrimage.

An annual pilgrimage undertaken by Muslims to the city of Mecca, Saudi Arabia, one of the five pillars of Islam.

The first caliph of Islam after the death of Prophet Muhammad. He united the Muslim community and suppressed various revolts, laying the foundation for the early Islamic state.

The first major Islamic dynasty, ruling from 661 to 750 CE. They expanded Islamic rule significantly, spreading Arabic culture and administration. Their rule was marked by internal divisions and eventually led to their downfall.

This dynasty succeeded the Umayyads and ruled the Islamic empire. They oversaw a golden age of Islamic culture, science, and philosophy. Their power eventually declined due to internal conflicts and external invasions.

A federation of Slavic tribes under Varangian leadership, centered in Kiev. They played a crucial role in spreading Orthodox Christianity in Eastern Europe and establishing trade routes.

He was responsible for converting Kievan Rus to Christianity in 988 CE. This event aligned the region with Byzantine culture and religion, shaping its future.

Two brothers who created the Glagolitic alphabet, a writing system for the Slavic languages. Their work played a significant role in the spread of Christianity and literacy in Eastern Europe.

A series of wars fought by the first caliph, Abu Bakr, against various Arab tribes who rebelled against the Islamic state following the death of Prophet Muhammad.

A powerful West African empire known for its wealth, especially in gold, flourishing between 1235 CE and 1600 CE. It was renowned for its cultural achievements, including the learning centers of Timbuktu, and played a role in the spread of Islam and African scholarship.

The pilgrimage to Mecca by Mansa Musa, ruler of the Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337 CE. This pilgrimage showcased Mali's immense wealth and influence, fostering the spread of Islam throughout West Africa.

A ruler of the Mali Empire who reigned from 1312 CE to 1337 CE. He was a devout Muslim who led a lavish pilgrimage to Mecca, showcasing Mali's immense wealth and furthering the spread of Islam in West Africa.

A city in Mali known for its flourishing trade and learning centers during the Mali Empire's reign. It gained prominence as a hub of Islamic scholarship and knowledge.

A trade route across the Sahara Desert where enslaved people were traded between African states and North African societies, primarily during the medieval period.

A powerful African state centered around Lake Chad in modern Chad and Nigeria. From the 9th to 18th centuries, Kanem controlled trade routes and was a key player in the trans-Saharan slave trade, influencing the region's economy and culture.

A successor to Kanem located around Lake Chad, active from the 14th to 19th centuries. Bornu continued the trans-Saharan trade and played a critical role in the spread of Islam in Central Africa.

Direct evidence from the event being studied, like original letters, speeches, photographs, legal documents, or physical objects.

Analysis, interpretation, or summaries of primary sources written by scholars or others. Examples include textbooks, biographies, or academic articles.