Ottoman Empire Mandates

• At its peak, the Ottoman Empire controlled most of Southwest Asia (excluding Persia), parts of Europe, and North Africa.
• The Ottoman Empire's rule ended in 1918, with the conclusion of World War I.

European Mandates

• Following their victory over the Ottoman Empire in World War I, Britain and France assumed control of Ottoman lands and these territories were designated as mandates.
• A mandate was a region governed by a country after World War I.
• Syria and Lebanon became French mandates and Britain gained control of present-day Israel, Jordan, and Iraq.
• Britain also governed Cyprus and sections of the Arabian Peninsula to safeguard trade routes to India.

Mandates and Conflict

• The borders of the mandates disregarded the existing distribution of ethnic groups, resulting in the Kurds being divided among several countries without their own state.
• Arabs who supported the fight against the Ottomans during World War I were denied independence, leading to feelings of betrayal and protests.
• The Palestine Mandate, now encompassing Israel and Jordan, became a source of contention due to Britain's conflicting promises of land to both Arabs and Jews during the war.
• European Jews faced anti-Semitism for many years
• Zionism emerged in the late 1800s as a movement advocating for a secure Jewish homeland in Palestine.
• Britain granted Arab kingdoms in Iraq and Transjordan (modern Jordan)
• Both Arabs and Jews expressed dissatisfaction; Arabs sought control over all the land, while Jews desired their own country, leading to increased migration and conflict.

New Nation-States

• Besides British and French rule, other groups commenced fighting for their own nations in the region.
• A nation-state is defined as a country that governs itself.

Modern Turkey

• Post-World War I, European powers attempted to seize control of Turkey however, the Turkish population resisted under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, who led them to victory.
• In 1923, Turkey achieved independence, and Kemal became president, initiating reforms to modernize Turkey along European lines.
• Turkey became a secular, nonreligious state and Kemal granted women additional rights, reformed the alphabet, and promoted European attire.
• Despite employing strict methods, Kemal was widely respected and given the title Ataturk, which translates to "Father of the Turks."

Iran Under the Shahs

• During the early 1900s, Iran faced challenges as Britain and Russia exerted control over its oil resources and influenced its government, causing resentment among Iranians.
• In the 1920s, Reza Pahlavi, a military leader, seized power and became shah, pursuing a modernization agenda for Iran to resemble Europe.
• His son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, persisted in these efforts, maintaining close ties with the United States and a new government ousted him however, with U.S. assistance, he regained power and suppressed dissent.

A Fractured Region

• Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, the kingdoms of Saudi Arabia and Yemen were established.
• In the 1700s, the Wahhabis, a rigorous Sunni Muslim group, allied with the Saudi family to create a state, leading to the formation of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
• Yemen had been under the Ottoman Empire in the north and British rule in the south: the northern region gained independence post-World War I, while the south remained under British control until the 1960s; Yemen unified as one country in 1990.
• Oil gained prominence in the early 1900s, attracting foreign companies to Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and other areas for extraction.
• Newly formed countries like Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon achieved independence in the 1930s and 1940s, grappling with internal divisions rooted in religious and ethnic diversity; Jordan also became a kingdom.

Conflict in Israel

• After World War II, the global community learned about the millions of Jews killed by Nazi Germany during the Holocaust, This increased support for a Jewish homeland within the Palestine Mandate.
• In 1947, the United Nations proposed partitioning the land into separate Jewish and Arab states; the Jews accepted the plan however, the Arabs rejected it.

Independence Brings War

• In 1948, Britain withdrew from the Palestine Mandate, leading to the establishment of the State of Israel by the Jewish population.
• Arab nations swiftly attacked Israel, displacing many Palestinian Arabs who became refugees in areas like the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
• Jewish refugees from other Arab countries also relocated to Israel and another war broke out in 1956 when Israel, supported by Britain and France, attacked Egypt after it blockaded the Suez Canal.

Further Conflicts

• In 1967, Arab countries including Egypt, Jordan, and Syria planned an attack on Israel however, Israel launched a preemptive strike and seized land from all three nations.
• Although Egypt and Syria attempted another attack in 1973, Israel won again.
• In 1979, the U.S. facilitated a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, resulting in Israel returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt; in 1994, Jordan also signed a peace treaty with Israel.

The Iranian Revolution

• In the 1960s, Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shia religious leader, publicly criticized the Shah's severe policies.
• Khomeini advocated for Iran to embrace Islamic law, sparking the Shah to exile him, but Khomeini continued his opposition.
• A revolution broke out in 1978, leading to the Shah's departure and the collapse of his government; in 1979, Khomeini returned and assumed control.
• In 1980, Saddam Hussein, the dictator of Iraq, launched an attack on Iran in an attempt to seize its oil-rich territories and other Arab countries and the U.S. supported Iraq; the Iran-Iraq War then lasted until 1988.

Conflicts in Iraq and the West

• In 1990, Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait to steal its oil led to intervention by the United States and other countries, resulting in Iraq's expulsion in 1991.
• In 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush accused Iraq of possessing weapons of mass destruction, leading to a U.S. invasion that removed Saddam from power despite the absence of any discovered weapons.
• In 2005, with U.S. assistance, Iraq established a democratic government.

Continued Fighting

• Armed clashes persisted with some Iraqis resisting U.S. forces, and violence erupted among ethnic and religious factions, including Kurds, Sunni Arabs, and Shia Arabs.
• The Sunni minority alleged mistreatment by the Shia-dominated government.

Civil War in Lebanon

• When Lebanon gained independence in the 1940s, Christians held the majority of power.
• As Muslims became the predominant group, they sought greater rights.
• A civil war then began in 1975 between Christians and Muslims, drawing in Palestinian Arab and Syrian troops, and in 1982, Israel intervened in Lebanon to counter attacks from Palestinian fighters.
• The civil war ended in 1990, after which Lebanon initiated reconstruction efforts; Israel withdrew in 2000, and Syria in 2005 and tensions, however, remained.