Origins of the American Divide

Origins of the American Divide

• The United States of America was founded on ideals of democracy, liberty, and justice, attracting people seeking freedom from European imperial powers.
• The new nation faced conflicts with the British and indigenous populations while establishing its own laws, political system, and culture.
• A significant cultural divide emerged between the industrialized northern states and the agricultural southern states, primarily over the issue of slavery.
• The debate over slavery's ethics evolved into a legal and political battle, eventually leading to the American Civil War (1861-1865).
• The Civil War had the highest American casualties than any other war in American history, with ramifications on culture and race that continue today.

The Slavery Debate Before Independence

• Even before the Declaration of Independence, the debate over slavery existed with Rhode Island outlawing it in 1774.
• Despite abolitionist sentiments, slavery was crucial to the economies of southern states, especially for tobacco harvesting.
• Eli Whitney's cotton gin in 1793 revolutionized cotton production, leading to increased profitability and demand for slave labor.
• The cotton trade boomed, creating fortunes for southern landowners and making cotton a key American export traded through ports such as New Orleans and Charleston.
• In contrast, the northern states were focused on industrialization and manufacturing, relying on immigrant labor rather than slaves.
• Growing immigrant populations in the North, who dreamt to be free, fueled calls for the abolition of slavery.

Territorial Expansion and Slavery

• The Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803 added vast territories, prompting debates over whether these new states should allow slavery.
• In 1808, the U.S. federal government banned the import of new slaves from Africa, a key victory for abolitionists.
• Northern states gradually phased out slavery, but the South heavily relied on it for their expanding cotton industry.
• The ban on importing slaves led to a surge in the internal slave trade within America.
• Cultural separation grew between the North and South as the North's immigrant population increased, leading some white Southerners to view themselves as more authentically American.

Political Compromises and Growing Tensions

• A political balance was maintained by admitting both slave and free states into the Union as new states were formed.
• The North's higher population led to political dominance in the House of Representatives, threatening the South.
• The Missouri Compromise of 1820 admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state to maintain balance.
• It stipulated that future states north of the 36°30' latitude line would be admitted only if they had abolished slavery.
• Despite the agreement, observers recognized that slavery was deeply dividing the nation with no long-term solution.

Annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War

• Tensions rose with Mexico as both Americans and Mexicans wanted to annex Texas.
• In 1836 Texas broke away from Mexico declaring itself an independent Republic.
• In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler aimed to annex Texas, partly to counter British efforts to free slaves there.
• Texas was annexed in 1846 under President James K. Polk, triggering the Mexican-American War.
• The war solidified America's military power and reinforced the belief in America's manifest destiny.
• The concept of Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief that it was the population of the US's destiny by God to expand across the north American continent

Post-War Divisions and the Compromise of 1850

• The acquisition of new territories after the Mexican-American War reignited the slavery debate.
• The Wilmot Proviso, which proposed banning slavery in new territories, was defeated but debates continued.
• The Compromise of 1850 was a package of five bills addressing the division between free and slave states.
• California was admitted as a free state, and the territories of New Mexico and Utah were allowed to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty.
• The Fugitive Slave Act was included enabled slave owners to capture slaves who escaped to free states.
• The Fugitive Slave Act which meant the US congress could not interfere with the slave trade between states, enraged northern abolitionists, feeling they were being forced to support slavery.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and "Bleeding Kansas"

• In 1854, Stephen Douglas introduced a bill to organize the Nebraska territory to build a transcontinental railroad.
• Southern senators rejected the bill because Nebraska would likely become a free state under the Missouri Compromise.
• The Kansas-Nebraska Act created two territories, Nebraska and Kansas, and repealed the Missouri Compromise line.
• It was decided that popular sovereignty would decide on the question of slavery in each territory.
• Pro- and anti-slavery factions flooded into Kansas, leading to violence, including the attack on Lawrence and John Brown's murders at Potawatomi Creek.
• "Bleeding Kansas" saw four months of violence until federal troops restored order but conflicts continued for years.

Dred Scott Decision and the Rise of the Republican Party

• The 1857 Dred Scott decision denied citizenship to black people and declared that Congress could not prohibit the expansion of slavery.
• The Dred Scott decision further enraged abolitionists.
• The Republican Party was formed in 1854, advocating for classical liberalism, economic reforms, and the end of slavery.
• Abraham Lincoln, a former Whig, joined the Republican Party and rose to prominence as an anti-slavery advocate.

Lincoln and the Republicans

• Lincoln initially resisted recruitment by the new Republican Party.
• He preferred addressing divisions within his own Whig party.
• Lincoln gradually aligned with Republicans due to their commitment to ending slavery.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates

• Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas engaged in key debates during the 1858 senate election campaign.
• Speeches and debates symbolized the problems of slavery in the United States.
• Lincoln lost the election to Douglas.
• His arguments formed the basis of his 1860 presidential campaign.
• The debates solidified Lincoln as an anti-slavery champion.

John Brown's Extremism

• John Brown proposed a slave insurrection in northern Virginia at a meeting in Chatham, Ontario, Canada in 1858.
• Frustration over peaceful emancipation led some abolitionists to support Brown's plan.
• Supporters gave weapons, supplies, money, or intelligence.
• Early in 1859, Brown and his supporters rented a farm near Harpers Ferry, Virginia.

Raid on Harpers Ferry

• On October 16, Brown and 21 followers occupied the federal arsenal.
• The goal was to acquire arms for a black insurrection.
• Plan failed and militia surrounded them.
• Virginia militia commanded by Colonel Robert E. Lee.
• Ten of Brown's men were killed.
• Brown was wounded and captured.

Trial and Execution of Brown

• Brown was tried for treason.
• He became a martyr in the eyes of abolitionists through his passionate defense.
• Brown was found guilty.
• He was hanged on December 2, 1859.

Fallout of Harpers Ferry Raid

• Fears of a northern-supported slave uprising increased in the South.
• Southern slave owners doubted their future in the Union.

1860 Presidential Election

• The United States was divided.
• The Democratic Party was split along northern and southern lines.
• Republican Party nominated Abraham Lincoln.
• Lincoln won under 40% of the popular vote.
• He won a majority in the electoral college with 180 votes.
• He swept the North and Pacific coast states.
• Victory rattled the pro-slavery South, seeing Lincoln as part of the abolitionist movement.
• Lincoln pledged not to interfere with slavery in the South.

Secession of Southern States

• Lincoln's election alienated the South, where he won no votes.
• South Carolina held a convention on December 17, 1860, to repeal ratification of the Constitution.
• South Carolina seceded on December 20, 1860.
• Mississippi seceded on January 9, 1861.
• Florida seceded on January 10, 1861.
• Alabama seceded on January 11, 1861.
• Georgia seceded on January 19, 1861.
• Louisiana seceded on January 26, 1861.
• Representatives met in Montgomery, Alabama, on February 4, 1861.
• They formed the Confederate States of America.
• They adopted their own flag.
• Jefferson Davis was selected as president.
• Texas seceded on February 23, 1861.

Lincoln's Inauguration

• Lincoln faced the biggest crisis in U.S. history.
• Inaugurated as president on March 4, 1861.
• He stated there was no cause for southern states to fear for their property, peace, and security.
• He had no intention of interfering with slavery where it existed.

Attack on Fort Sumter

• Fort Sumter was an incomplete seafort in Charleston harbor, South Carolina.
• U.S. troops were in a standoff with local militia after states seceded.
• Lincoln planned to resupply the men at the fort.
• Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard ordered bombardment of the fort on April 12, 1861.
• After 34 hours, U.S. Army Major Robert Anderson surrendered with 86 men.
• The American Civil War had begun.

Mobilization for War

• On April 15, 1861, Lincoln ordered a 75,000 man army to be raised.
• It was intended for use against southern insurrection.
• Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina sided with the Confederacy.

Union and Confederacy Disadvantages

• The Union had a significantly higher population.
• The Confederacy had 9.5 million people including 3.5 million slaves.
• New York City's population alone was 8.5 million.
• Confederate forces had to protect over 770,000 square miles of land.
• The Union had about 18.5 million people.
• The Union mustered a force of 2.2 million soldiers.
• The Confederacy had approximately 1 million troops.
• The Union possessed more railroad track for troop redeployment and supplies.
• Union navy blockaded major Confederate ports.
• Confederate president Jefferson Davis struggled to maintain unity.
• States prioritized their own needs.

Expansion of Union Army and Occupation of Virginia

• On May 3, Lincoln expanded the Union Army with a call for 43,000 volunteers.
• On May 24, Union forces crossed the Potomac River.
• They occupied Arlington Heights in Virginia, home of Robert E. Lee.
• They also occupied Alexandria.

Death of Elmer Ellsworth

• Union Colonel Elmer Ellsworth removed a Confederate flag from the Marshall House.
• Inn run by James W. Jackson.
• Jackson shot and killed Ellsworth.
• One of Ellsworth's men killed Jackson.
• Ellsworth became the first Union officer killed in the Civil War.
• Both men became martyrs for their respective causes.
• Ellsworth's body lay in state at the White House.

Battle of Philippi

• On June 3, Union forces attacked Confederate recruits at Philippi, Virginia.
• Union victory fueled protests against secession in western Virginia.
• The Wheeling Convention nullified Virginia's secession.
• Francis H. Pierpont named governor of West Virginia.
• West Virginia accepted as the 35th state on January 20, 1863.

First Battle of Bull Run

• Lincoln ordered General Irvin McDowell to attack Confederates near Manassas Junction, Virginia.
• Attack intended to lead to capture of Richmond.
• Goal was to end the war quickly.
• On July 21, 1861, the two armies met in the First Battle of Bull Run.
• 35,000 Union troops attacked a smaller Confederate force.
• Union attack was poorly conducted.
• Confederate reinforcements arrived by railroad.
• Brigadier General Thomas J. Jackson earned the nickname "Stonewall" for his brigade's immovable defense.
• Confederates broke the Union right flank.
• Union troops retreated to Washington.
• Confederate victory shattered Union confidence.
• Defenses were erected around Washington.
• Led them to realize the civil war was not going to be a short affair.

Battle of Wilson's Creek

• Union army under General Nathaniel Lyon attacked a Confederate force near Springfield, Missouri.
• Union forces were compelled to retreat after a day of brutal fighting.
• Lyon was killed, becoming the first Union general to die in the war.

Union Victory at Cape Hatteras

• Union naval forces attacked forts Clark and Hatteras in Cape Hatteras, North Carolina on August 28.
• 880 Union men landed on the shore.
• Confederates surrendered after heavy bombardment.
• Union began campaign to close Confederate ports and strangle their cotton trade.

Confederate Diplomacy and the Trent Affair

• Confederate government sought war materials from Britain and France.
• In November 1861, the British mail ship RMS Trent carrying Confederate commissioners James M. Mason and John Slidell to London was intercepted.
• U.S. warship San Jacinto, commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, forcibly removed the two commissioners.
• They were interned at Fort Warren in Boston.
• The act contravened the law of the sea.
• Britain relied heavily on Confederate cotton.
• The United States accused Britain of siding with the Confederacy.

British Response and Resolution

• Britain threatened war if the men were not returned.
• They convened a special cabinet committee.
• Reinforcements ordered to Canada.
• Royal Navy warships dispatched to North American waters.
• Sale of saltpeter halted.
• Diplomatic compromise averted war.
• Mason and Slidell were released by January 1862.

British Neutrality and Ship Building

• Britain maintained official neutrality.
• British shipyards built ships for the Confederate navy.
• They knew the ships would be armed and used as warships and raiders.

Battle of Balls Bluff

• On October 21, 1861, Union troops met Confederates at the Battle of Balls Bluff in Virginia.
• Union Colonel Edward D. Baker, a senator from Oregon, led troops across the Potomac River.
• They were forced back to the river's edge.
• Baker was killed.
• Confederate reinforcements forced the Union to withdraw.
• Many Union soldiers drowned in the icy waters.
• Start of the war had been a series of disasters for Lincoln and the Union.

Battles in Kentucky

• Kentucky had declared itself neutral.
• The Confederate army disregarded their declaration and sent troops into the state on September 3, 1861.
• Union sent troops in under Ulysses S. Grant.
• On January 10, 1862, opposing forces met in the Battle of Middle Creek, ending in a Union victory.
• January 19, 1862: The Battle of Mill Springs
• Confederate defeat blamed on Major General George G. Crittenden, accused of being drunk.
• The battles of Middle Creek and Mill Springs cemented Union control of eastern Kentucky.

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson

• On February 6, the Union forced the Confederate contingent of Fort Henry to surrender.
• The surrender of the fort opened the Tennessee River to Union vessels.
• Between February 6th and February 12th the Union conducted a number of raids to destroy shipping and bridges.
• On February 16, General Ulysses S. Grant's forces captured Fort Donelson.

Confederacy Inaugration

• Confederate States of America inaugurated Jefferson Davis as president on February 22nd, 1862.

Key Battles and Figures

• March 7, 1862: Over 23,000 soldiers fought at Pea Ridge, Missouri, the most pivotal battle of the war west of the Mississippi River.
• Brigadier General Samuel R. Curtis led Union forces, driving Confederate forces into northwestern Arkansas.
• Despite numerical disadvantage, Curtis secured a Union victory, solidifying Union control of Missouri and opening up Arkansas.

Naval Warfare and Technological Advancements

• The Civil War era saw a technological revolution in naval warfare, with steam engines supplementing sail power.
• Steam power enabled ships to maintain mobility even if masts were damaged and allowed them to leave harbors without favorable winds.
• Navies adopted cannons firing explosive shells, necessitating the use of iron armor on ships, leading to the development of ironclads.
• France pioneered ironclad technology with floating gun batteries in the Crimean War and the first ironclad warship, "Glory", in 1856.
• The Confederacy converted the USS Merrimack into an ironclad named the CSS Virginia.
• The Union responded by completing the USS Monitor, an unconventional ironclad with a rotating turret housing two 280mm guns.
• March 9, 1862: The Battle of Hampton Roads marked the first engagement between two ironclad warships, the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia.
• The battle was inconclusive, with both ships sustaining damage but neither being sunk; however, it signaled a major shift in naval warfare.

Union Advances and Confederate Counter-Offensives

• The Union aimed to disrupt Confederate commercial shipping through blockades and armed warships.
• Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston regrouped 40,000 men in western Tennessee to confront General Grant's 60,000 Union troops.
• April 6: Johnston was killed at the Battle of Shiloh leading a charge, becoming the highest-ranking Confederate officer to die in the war.
• Grant overwhelmed the Confederates, opening up northern Mississippi to the Union.
• Admiral David Farragut led a Union fleet in attacks on Confederate forts guarding the Mississippi River's mouth, capturing New Orleans by May 2.
• Confederate General Stonewall Jackson captured a Union garrison at the Battle of Front Royal on May 23.
• May 31: Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston attempted to overwhelm Union corps south of the Chickahominy River, leading to the Battle of Seven Pines, an inconclusive battle with heavy casualties on both sides.
• June 6: A Union flotilla under Commodore Charles Davis defeated a Confederate flotilla at the Battle of Memphis, giving the Union almost total control of the Mississippi River.

Seven Days Battles and Confederate Initiatives

• June 25-July 1: Confederate General Robert E. Lee attacked General George McClellan's Army of the Potomac in the Seven Days Battles in Virginia.
• The Union army retreated to the James River, suffering 16,000 casualties, while Lee's force lost 20,000.
• Lee relocated his forces north to pressure Union forces along the Virginia-Maryland border, believing McClellan's army was no longer a threat.
• Union Admiral Farragut's attacks on Vicksburg's defenses were unsuccessful, and a Confederate ironclad forced his fleet to withdraw.
• July 17: The Union approved the enrollment of black troops into Union militias.

Northern Virginia Campaign and Emancipation Proclamation

• General John Pope's Union forces in northern Virginia faced General Lee's advancing forces in August.
• August 9: Clash at Cedar Mountain.
• Lee sent Stonewall Jackson's force to outflank the Union position, capturing Pope's supply depot.
• Bitter fighting at Brawner's Farm ensued as the Union tried to destroy Jackson's men, but Jackson held his ground.
• The defeated Union army retreated across Bull Run towards Washington, D.C.
• The Confederate victory opened the way for the South's first invasion of the North.
• President Lincoln had formulated the Emancipation Proclamation but was advised against enacting it after Lee's victory.
• Lincoln needed a victory to secure his position and enforce the Proclamation.

Maryland Campaign and Bloodiest Single Day Battle

• September 9: Lee issues Special Order 191, outlining his plan to attack Union forces in Maryland and northern Virginia.
• Union soldiers discovered a copy of Lee's orders, giving McClellan knowledge of Lee's strategy.
• September 14: McClellan's forces resisted the Confederates at Sharpsburg.
• The Battle of Antietam Creek (Sharpsburg) ensued, resulting in over 23,000 casualties, with 3,650 deaths, making it the bloodiest single day in the Civil War.
• Lee withdrew south to Virginia.
• McClellan did not pursue, disappointing Lincoln, who removed McClellan and replaced him with General Ambrose Burnside.
• September 22: Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation.

Fredericksburg and Military Conscription

• Burnside organized 120,000 men for a two-pronged attack against Lee at Fredericksburg, Virginia.
• Confederate victory re-energized Confederates and devastated Union morale.
• The Confederacy had already instigated a military draft due to their numerical disadvantage.
• The Union introduced military conscription in March, but the parameters were unpopular.
• Resentment grew towards the Union cause and the newly emancipated black communities.

Chancellorsville and Gettysburg

• April: The Union went on the offensive on both the eastern and western fronts.
• Union army surrounded Vicksburg, Mississippi, to capture the last Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River.
• April 30: Lee with 60,000 men found 80,000 enemy troops behind him, thanks to a brilliant march and river crossing by Union major general Joseph Hooker.
• Hooker was unnerved by Confederate counter-attacks and halted to erect defenses, squandering his advantage.
• Lee and Stonewall Jackson executed their own flanking maneuver, forcing Hooker to retreat by May 6, with heavy casualties on both sides.
• Jackson was killed by Confederate troops who mistook him for a Union force.
• Lee charged north into Pennsylvania, but food, ammunition, and horses were in short supply.
• General Hooker sent a cavalry raid back across the river to attack the Confederates at Brandy Station.
• Excellent reallocation of his men helped Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart to fend off the Union cavalry, who retreated.
• Confederate troops under General Richard Ewell defeated General Robert Milroy's Union forces at the Second Battle of Winchester.
• July 1: Confederates arrived at Gettysburg and drove out a small Union force.
• The Confederates failed to capitalize on this early gain.
• The Confederate attack was poorly organized and late engaging with the enemy, being halted by nightfall, despite pushing the Unions defence lines with brutal fighting.
• The Union counter-attacked on July 3, with Union troops well fortified and protected by stone walls cut down the confederate men.
• Lee ordered a retreat.
• Union casualties: 23,000; Confederate losses: 28,000+ (1/3 of Lee's army).

Vicksburg and Charleston

• The Union under General Ulysses S. Grant accepted the surrender of Vicksburg, securing the Mississippi River.
• Any hopes of the Confederacy receiving foreign recognition were dashed.
• Union naval and land forces attacked Confederate defenses near Charleston, South Carolina.
• The 54th Massachusetts Colored Infantry, the first African-American regiment of volunteers to see combat, participated in the attack, but violence marred the milestone in New York City.
• July 18: The 54th helped lead an assault on Battery Wagner, but their commander was killed.

Western Guerrilla Warfare tactics

• The fighting along the Kansas-Missouri border took the form of a bloody guerrilla style of warfare.

• It was the chance to renew the fighting that occurred during the Kansas Bleeds affair.

• Bloody massacre occurred in Lawrence, Kansas, in August 21, 1863.### Key Battles and Military Campaigns of 1863-1864

• Quantrill's Raiders, a Confederate group, attacked Lawrence, Kansas, killing 175 men and boys.

• This attack was revenge for a previous sacking and was near Union Senator James Lane's home.

• Lane retaliated by destroying homes of Southern men.

Eastern Theater: Tennessee and Virginia

• Union forces captured Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tennessee, strategic for Confederate weaponry.
• A Confederate siege of Knoxville was broken by General Grant.
• Gettysburg and Chattanooga were key victories that turned the tide for the Union.
• General Lee attempted to flank General Meade in Virginia, leading to skirmishes like Bristow Station.
• Meade withdrew, ending major engagements in the state for the year.
• General Longstreet's siege of Knoxville failed, and he retreated.

Lincoln's Proclamation and Political Landscape

• Lincoln issued a proclamation offering pardons to Confederate soldiers who pledged allegiance to the Union.
• The Confederate raids on Union shipping damaged the Union economy.
• Lincoln faced upcoming elections and needed positive war news.

Notable Events of Early 1864

• 109 Union officers escaped from Libby Prison, a large-scale and sensational event.
• Union forces captured Meridian, Mississippi, a major blow to the Confederate war effort.
• The USS Housatonic was the first ship sunk by a submarine, the HL Hunley, near Charleston.
• All eight crew members of the HL Hunley including its commander Lieutenant George E. Dixon died in the attack

Grant's Command and the Red River Campaign

• General Grant became commander of all Union forces in March 1864.
• A military campaign along the Red River was proposed to destroy Confederate forces, capture Shreveport, confiscate cotton, and establish pro-Union governments.
• The campaign began on March 10th, with Union forces capturing Fort De Rossi.
• Union Major General Nathaniel P. Banks, aiming for the presidency, led the army.

Setbacks on the Red River

• The Union advance lost cohesion, leading to commander conflicts.
• Taylor confronted Banks at Mansfield (Sabine Crossroads), resulting in a Union defeat.
• The Union Navy, under Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter, retreated due to lack of support.
• The campaign ended inconclusively at Yellow Bayou on May 18th.

Fort Pillow Massacre

• Confederate cavalry under Nathan Bedford Forrest captured Fort Pillow in Tennessee on April 12th.
• Confederate soldiers murdered black Union volunteers and other members of the garrison after they had surrendered, a controversial act.

Grant's Virginia Campaign

• Grant launched a major campaign in Virginia with three objectives: to engage Lee's forces, capture Richmond, and disrupt Lee's supply lines via the Shenandoah Valley.
• Lee attacked Grant's army in the Battle of the Wilderness, leading to savage fighting.
• Grant withdrew to position his force between Lee and Richmond.

Battles of Spotsylvania and North Anna

• Union troops launched attacks on Confederate defensive lines at Laurel Hill and Spotsylvania.
• Bloody fighting occurred at the "Bloody Angle" on May 12th.
• Grant withdrew to the southeast after repeated unsuccessful attacks.
• Battles and skirmishes took place along the North Anna River, leading to a stalemate due to Lee illness.
• Grant relocated towards Cold Harbor after the inconclusive battle

Battle of Cold Harbor

• Union cavarly seized the crossroads of Old Cold Harbor
• Confederates failed to retake the crossroads
• Union forces assaulted the Confederates, who built extensive fortifications.
• The Union attacks were repulsed with massive casualties.
• Grant regretted the assault due to heavy losses.
• Grant relocated towards the James River, marking a defensive victory for Lee.

Siege of Petersburg

• Lee fell back to Petersburg, constructing extensive defenses.
• Grant's attempts to breach the defenses had little success, leading to a siege.
• The static trench warfare was a precursor to future conflicts.

Confederate Raid on Washington D.C.

• Confederate General Early raided Washington D.C. after defeating Union forces at Monocacy.
• Early's exhausted force probed the city's defenses on July 11th.
• Union reinforcements arrived, repulsing Early's attack on Fort Stevens on 12th July.
• Lincoln observed the battle and came under fire.
• Early withdrew, reporting he had scared Lincoln badly.

Sherman's Atlanta Campaign

• General Sherman invaded Georgia from Tennessee.
• Sherman forced the retreat of Confederate forces in May 1864, aiming to capture Atlanta.