Origins and Influences of Psychology

Origins of Psychology

• The word psychology comes from the Greek words psyche (soul or mind) and logos (study or discourse).
• Psycho-logy means "the study of the mind."
• Psychology gained widespread use and its literal meaning of studying the mind in the early 18th century..

Influences and Emergence as a Discipline

• Philosophy and physiology influenced the early history of psychology.
• Philosophers questioned the nature of mind and experience.
• Physiologists studied the body and brain through empirical methods which shaped psychological inquiry.
• Psychology emerged as a distinct research discipline in the late 19th century (around the 1870s).
• Wilhelm Wundt is credited with establishing the first research lab dedicated to psychology.
• Wundt is known as the "father of modern psychology."

Wilhelm Wundt's Contributions

• Wundt established psychology as an empirical science, separate from philosophy and physiology.
• He emphasized experimentation and observation in psychological processes.
• Wundt advanced introspection - trained observers reported their experiences in controlled settings.
• Introspection was later critiqued and dismissed.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

• Structuralism, founded by Wundt, focused on identifying the basic elements ('structures') of psychological experience through introspection.
• Structuralism aimed to understand consciousness' components and how they combine.
• Functionalism, led by William James, focused on the purpose and function of mental processes in adapting to the environment.
• Structuralism sought to break down mental processes.
• Functionalism looked at how the same processes helped organisms adapt to their surroundings

Introspection from a Structuralist Perspective

• For structuralists, introspection meant trained participants systematically reflecting on their conscious experiences in response to stimuli.
• Introspection wanted to reveal the mind’s structures.
• Introspection was criticized for its subjective nature, leading to its decline as a primary research method

William James's Perspective

• William James is known as the father of functionalism.
• James emphasized studying the purpose of consciousness over its structure.
• James believed psychology should study how mental processes help individuals adapt.
• He coined "stream of consciousness" to describe the continuous flow of thoughts and experiences.
• He sought to understand mental activities' functions and their roles in everyday life.
• This marked a shift from static approaches like structuralism.
• James's "Principles of Psychology" (1890) became foundational.
• It brought forward concepts like the connection between emotions and physiological responses.
• His approach incorporated psychological and physiological aspects, promoting an inclusive understanding of behavior.

Watson and Behaviorism

• John B. Watson founded behaviorism.
• Behaviorism aimed to define psychology as the study of observable behavior.
• Watson thought psychology should abandon studying consciousness.
• Watson proposed focusing on behaviors that can be measured and analyzed scientifically.
• Watson defined behavior as any overt response or activity by an organism.
• This includes physiological reactions to motor activities.
• Watson emphasized the environment's influence on behavior.
• Watson claimed he could train a child to become any type of specialist, regardless of genetics through environmental factors.

Watson on Consciousness and Nature vs. Nurture

• Watson proposed abandoning studying consciousness due to its private and subjective nature.
• He believed it detracted from the scientific rigor of psychological studies.
• Watson advocated for a strong environmental perspective (nurture).
• Watson downplayed the role of genetics in behavior development.
• Watson believed behavior is largely shaped by the environment instead of inherited traits.
• Watson acknowledged a role for instincts (innate traits).

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

• Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalytic theory.
• Freud's theory is influential and controversial.
• Freud's theory centers on the unconscious mind which influences human behavior.
• The unconscious is a reservoir of thoughts, memories, and desires below conscious awareness.
• Unconscious forces can profoundly impact thoughts and actions without recognition.
• Freud identified key components of the psyche: the Id, Ego, and Superego.
• The Id is the primal part responsible for instinctual drives and desires.
• The Id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.
• The Ego develops in response to the Id's unrealistic demands.
• The Ego functions on the reality principle, mediating between the Id and external world constraints.
• The Ego helps individuals navigate reality and fulfill desires socially.
• The Superego embodies moral standards learned from parents and society.
• The Superego evaluates actions based on moral values and strives for perfection.
• Psychological disturbances stem from conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego.
• Conflicts often originate in the unconscious.
• Disturbing emotions and conflicts arise from unacceptable urges that are repressed.
• These repressed urges manifest as symptoms of mental disorders, anxiety, or neuroses.
• Freud's theories face criticism for lacking empirical support.
• Psychoanalytic concepts are difficult to test scientifically.
• Many consider his ideas as unscientific because they rely on subjective interpretation.
• It's challenging to produce objective evidence or replicable findings.
• Psychoanalysis has not consistently demonstrated effectiveness for treating psychological disorders.

Skinner's Behaviorism

• B.F. Skinner asserted that psychology should be based only on observable behaviors and external factors.
• Skinner emphasized the environment's importance in shaping behavior.
• Skinner Proposed all actions can be explained by conditioning.
• Behavior is modified through reinforcement and punishment.
• This led to operant conditioning.
• Operant conditioning strengthened or weakened behaviors based on their consequences.
• Skinner acknowledged internal mental events, but they shouldn't be focused by scientific psychology.
• Skinner believed these internal states were subjective and empirically inaccessible.
• Psychologists should focus on observable behaviors and environmental stimuli.
• Free will is an illusion; behavior is determined by environmental variables, not conscious choice.

Humanism and its Appeal

• Humanism emphasizes the inherent dignity and potential of human beings.
• Humanism developed because of perceived limitations of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
• Humanistic psychology advocates for personal experience and the subjective nature of reality.
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed individuals are inherently good.
• They are motivated towards self-actualization (realizing one’s potential).
• It offered a positive, holistic approach to understanding human behavior.
• Unlike behaviorism and psychoanalysis, humanism centered on conscious experiences and the individual’s ability to make choices.
• This holistic view encouraged personal growth and emphasized feelings, resilience, and agency.
• Humanism resonated with those seeking an optimistic perspective on psychology.

Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives

• Biological Perspective: focuses on physiological and genetic factors influencing behavior.
• Learning Perspective: emphasizes environmental influences and learning processes in shaping behavior (behaviorism and social learning).
• Cognitive Perspective: investigates internal mental processes (thinking, memory, problem-solving).
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: examines unconscious motives and conflicts, rooted in Freud's theories.
• Humanistic Perspective: highlights individual potential, growth, and self-actualization.
• Sociocultural Perspective: explores how cultural and social contexts influence behavior and mental processes.

Clinical Psychology

• Clinical psychology focuses on assessing, diagnosing, and treating psychological disorders and emotional issues.
• Clinical psychology emerged in North America in the late 19th to early 20th century.
• Clinical psychology gained traction after World War II.
• Traction was gained due to a growing need for mental health services among soldiers and the population.
• Increased mental health disorders and a lack of practitioners drove the demand for clinical psychologists and therapeutic interventions.

Cognition

• Cognition refers to mental processes involved in gaining knowledge/understanding.
• This includes perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Consciousness is referred to as cognitive processes; this connection can be misleading.
• Cognition often correlates with conscious awareness, but many cognitive processes occur without our direct awareness.
• Cognitive research extends to studying reasoning and problem-solving in humans and AI.

Key Figures in Cognitive Psychology

• Jean Piaget: Known for work on children's cognitive development.
• His theories highlighted children's active construction of understanding via stages.
• Noam Chomsky: His critiques of behaviorism and exploration of language acquisition.
• Introduced that innate mental structures influence language learning.
• This led to a resurgence of interest in cognitive processes (1950s and 1960s.)
• Herbert Simon: Researched on problem-solving and decision-making.
• He contributed foundational ideas to cognitive science.
• He won the Nobel Prize in 1978 for insights into human cognition.
• Ulric Neisser: Known as the father of cognitive psychology.
• His 1967 book, Cognitive Psychology, established the field as a distinct area of study.
• Mental processes are essential in understanding behavior.

Fundamental Beliefs of Cognitive Psychologists

• Focus on Mental Processes: Internal mental processes (perception, memory, problem-solving) are vital.
• This is contrary to behaviorists' focus on observable behavior.
• Information Processing Model: The mind is like a computer, processing information through stages (input, storage, retrieval).
• Cognitive psychologists study how people understand, interpret, and remember information.
• Constructivist View: Individuals actively construct their understanding of the world.
• Knowledge isn't simply absorbed; it's built through experiences and cognitive processes.
• Interconnectedness of Cognition and Behavior: Cognition influences behavior.
• Studying processes reveals why individuals act as they do.

Hebb's Contributions

• Donald Hebb studied the relationship between neuroscience and behavior.
• Hebb's Rule: "Cells that fire together wire together."
• Repeated stimulation of a group of neurons forms strong relationships.
• Cell Assemblies: Neurons become interconnected through repeated activation.
• They form a functional unit that leads to memory storage and facilitates behavior.
• Activated assemblies represent complex ideas or memories.
• Hebb bridged psychology and neuroscience.
• This enhances the understanding of cognitive processes through biological mechanisms.

Evolutionary Psychology

• Evolutionary psychology examines how evolutionary principles (natural selection) shape psychological traits and behaviors.
• Many human behaviors and cognitive processes are adaptations.
• Behaviors have evolved to solve problems faced by our ancestors.
• Behaviors (aggression or mate selection) can be understood in terms of evolutionary advantages.
• Aggressiveness may confer survival benefits.
• Traits promoting aggression could be favored and passed on through generation
• This approach accounts for differences in species’ abilities or traits.
• Certain behaviors evolved differently in different environments.
• Traits like aggression vary within and between species.
• This is because of adaptive functions across different cohorts over time.

Positive Psychology

• Positive psychology studies positive experiences, traits, and institutions that facilitate well-being.
• Positive psychology emphasizes contributing factors to a fulfilling life.
• This in response to traditional psychology’s focus on mental disorders and pathologies.
  • Positive Emotions: Studies happiness, contentment, gratitude, and hope.
  • Explores how positive emotional states contribute to overall well-being
  • Character Strengths: Identifies classify, and analyzes personal strengths in order to enhance individual flourishing
  • Positive Institutions: Examines how social systems nurture positive traits/foster conducive environments
• Positive psychology complements traditional psychology.
• It emphasizes strengths and factors that lead to flourishing.
• It helps leverage psychological resources to improve quality of life.

Psychology Today

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• It covers a range of fields: emotion, cognition, development, social interactions, and mental health.
• Integrates methodologies and perspectives to understand how people think, feel, and behave

Types of Work in Contemporary Psychology

Professional Practice

• Clinical Psychologists: Assess & treat mental health disorders through therapeutic techniques.
• Counseling Psychologists: Provide guidance & support for personal and interpersonal issues.
• School Psychologists: Work with children/adolescents in educational settings to address learning/behavioral challenges.
• Industrial-Organizational Psychologists: Apply psychological principles to optimize workplace productivity and employee well-being.
• Forensic Psychologists: Operate in the legal system, addressing psychological issues related to criminal justice.

Research Practice

• Research Psychologists: Conduct empirical studies to broaden understanding of psychological phenomena.

Professional Vs Academic/Research Psychology

• Professional Psychology: Applies psychological principles practically to assist individuals/groups (therapy, client interaction).
• Academic/Research Psychology: Generates new knowledge through scientific inquiry (teaching, studies, publishing).
• Academic work centers on understanding psychological principles rather than applying them directly to clients.

Research Areas in Modern Psychology

• Cognitive Psychology: Study of mental processes (perception, memory, problem-solving).
• Developmental Psychology: Examines psychological growth + changes across the lifespan.
• Social Psychology: Investigates individuals influenced by social contexts/interactions.
• Clinical Psychology: Focus on diagnosing & treating psychological disorders.
• Health Psychology: Explores psychological aspects of health, illness, healthcare.
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Application of psychological principles to workplace environments.
• Neuroscience: Study of biological bases of behavior/cognitive processes.
• Evolutionary Psychology: Investigates how evolution shapes psychological traits/behaviors.
• Positive Psychology: Focuses on strengths, well-being, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life

Main Professional Psychology Specialties

• Clinical Psychology: Assessment/treatment of mental health disorders.
• Counseling Psychology: Support/guidance for personal and interpersonal issues.
• School Psychology: Address learning/behavioral problems in educational settings.
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Improves workplace productivity/employee satisfaction.
• Forensic Psychology: Apply concepts to legal issues/the criminal justice system.
• Health Psychology: Study factors that influence health/healthcare practices.

Psychiatry Vs Clinical Psychology

• Psychiatry: Medical specialty focusing on diagnosis & treatment of mental disorders via medical means (prescriptions).
• Clinical Psychology: Deals with mental health disorders using therapeutic techniques (non-medical) and doctoral degrees
• Interventions are focused without prescribing.

Educational Vs School Psychology

• Educational Psychology: Educational psychology focuses on understanding how people learn and the effectiveness of educational interventions.
• School Psychology: Involves direct interaction with students, to address psychological challenges/facilitate learning.

Behaviorism vs. Behavioral Neuroscience

• Behaviorism: Emphasizes observable behaviors and environmental influences.
• Behavioral Neuroscience: Investigates biological underpinnings of behavior (brain/nervous system structure/function).

Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study

• Psychology is Empirical: Knowledge is acquired through systematic observation.
• Psychology is Theoretically Diverse: It uses a variety of frameworks to address the complexity.
• Psychology Evolves in a Sociohistorical Context: Influenced by its context.

Empiricism

• Empiricism emphasizes that knowledge primarily derives from sensory experience and systematic observation.
• Empiricism wants evidence through experimentation is needed for conclusions about psychological phenomena.
• Claims need to be critically evaluated when there is a lack of empirical support.
• Promotes rigorous testing of theories/hypotheses.
• An questioning attitude is essential for psychological knowledge to be grounded in reliable evidence and avoid the biases of assumptions.

Themes Related to Psychology's Subject Matter

• Behavior is Determined by Multiple Causes: Complexity often arises from interplay factors.
• Behavior is Shaped by One's Cultural Heritage: Early studies tend to examine narrow demographics resulting in limitation.
• Heredity and Environment Jointly Influence Behavior: Results from a complex interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental factors:
• People’s Experience of the World is Highly Subjective: Individual interpretations of experiences as valid highlighting need for objective methods.

Spatial Reasoning and Navigational Abilities

• The assessment of the evolutionary theory regarding differences in spatial reasoning and navigational abilities includes the consideration of cultural influences.
• Individual differences within gender groups also play a role.
• Furthermore, neuroscientific evidence may reveal structural differences providing insight into cognitive variations
• Finally, examining cross-cultural studies can illuminate how social norms and gender roles affect spatial skill development.