History of Psychology

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Identify the origins of the word psychology (that is, its etymology).

The term psychology is derived from two Greek words: psyche and logos. Psyche translates to "soul" or "mind," while logos refers to "study" or "discourse."

What does psycho-logy literally mean, according to its two parts (that is, psyche andlogia, or psych- and -ology)?

When combined, the term literally means "the study of the mind."

Which two disciplines influenced the early history of psychology?

The early history of psychology was significantly influenced by two primary disciplines: philosophy and physiology.

When did psychology emerge as a distinct research discipline? Who is most associated with the first research lab in psychology?

Psychology emerged as a distinct research discipline in the late 19th century (specifically around the 1870s). The most notable figure associated with establishing the first research laboratory dedicated to psychology is Wilhelm Wundt, often referred to as the "father of modern psychology." Signup and view all the answers

Summarize Wundt's accomplishments and contributions to the field of psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt's contributions include the establishment of psychology as an empirical science distinct from philosophy and physiology. He emphasized experimentation and observation in psychological processes, shaping methods of research in the field. Wundt is best known for advancing introspection as a method for studying the conscious mind, where trained observers reported their Signup and view all the answers

Define and compare structuralism and functionalism.

Structuralism, founded by Wundt, emphasized identifying the basic elements or 'structures' of psychological experience through introspection. It sought to understand the components of consciousness and how they combine to form experiences. In contrast, functionalism emerged as a response, led by figures like William James, and focused on the purpose and function of mental processes in adapting to the environment. Signup and view all the answers

Define introspection as structuralists would have used the term.

For structuralists, introspection involved trained participants systematically reflecting on their conscious experiences in response to stimuli. This technique was intended to reveal the structures of the mind but was criticized for its subjective nature, leading to its decline as a primary research methodology in psychology. Signup and view all the answers

Describe James's perspective on psychology and his general contributions to psychology.

William James is often referred to as the father of functionalism and he greatly influenced the development of psychology by emphasizing the importance of studying the purpose of consciousness rather than its structure. He believed that psychology should focus on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments, coining the term "stream of consciousness" to describe the continuous flow of thoughts and experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Watson's view of behaviourism. Define behaviour as it is used in this perspective.

John B. Watson founded behaviorism, a school of thought that aimed to define psychology purely as the study of observable behavior. He asserted that psychology should abandon the study of consciousness and instead focus on behaviors that can be measured and analyzed scientifically. According to Watson, behavior is defined as any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism, including everything from physiological reactions to motor activities. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Watson propose that psychologists abandon the study of consciousness?

Watson proposed that psychologists should abandon the study of consciousness because mental processes are private and cannot be objectively observed. He believed this detracted from the scientific rigor needed in psychological studies. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Watson's view of the nature-nurture issue.

Watson argued for a strong environmental perspective, downplaying the role of genetics in behavior development. He believed that behavior is largely molded by the environment, not inherited traits, although he acknowledged that instincts (innate traits) also play a role. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Freud's psychoanalytic theory.

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, developed psychoanalytic theory, which remains one of the most influential yet controversial frameworks in psychology. Freud's theory is centered around the idea that human behavior is significantly influenced by the unconscious mind—a reservoir of thoughts, memories, and desires that exist below the level of conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

Describe Skinner's view of psychology. What did he believe about internal mental events and their role in scientific psychology?

B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist, asserted that psychology should be based solely on observable behaviors and the external factors that influence them. He emphasized the importance of the environment in shaping behavior, proposing that all actions can be explained in terms of conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

What is humanism and humanistic psychology? Why did some psychologists find humanistic psychology more appealing than other perspectives?

Humanism emerged as a psychological perspective that emphasizes the inherent dignity and potential of human beings. Developed in response to the perceived limitations of behaviorism and psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology advocates for the significance of personal experience and the subjective nature of reality. Signup and view all the answers

What are the six major contemporary theoretical perspectives in psychology as presented in textbook?

<ol> <li>Biological Perspective: Focuses on the physiological and genetic factors influencing behavior.</li> <li>Learning Perspective: Emphasizes the role of environmental influences and learning processes in shaping behavior (includes behaviorism and social learning).</li> <li>Cognitive Perspective: Investigates internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.</li> <li>Psychoanalytic Perspective: Examines unconscious motives and conflicts that drive behavior, rooted in Freud's theories.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Define clinical psychology. When did this professional field emerge in North America? What seems to have been the main driver of that emergence?

Clinical psychology focuses on assessing, diagnosing, and treating a wide range of psychological disorders and emotional issues. This professional field began to emerge in North America in the late 19th to early 20th century, gaining significant traction following World War II due to a growing public need for mental health services among returning soldiers and the general population. Signup and view all the answers

What is cognition?

Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and understanding, encompassing activities such as perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Signup and view all the answers

Which people were important in the development of cognitive psychology?

Jean Piaget: Known for his work on the cognitive development of children, Piaget's theories highlighted how children actively construct their understanding of the world through stages of development. Noam Chomsky: His critiques of behaviorism and exploration of language acquisition introduced the idea that innate mental structures influence language learning, leading to a resurgence of interest in cognitive processes during the 1950s and 1960s. Herbert Simon: Research on problem-solving and decision-making contributed foundational ideas to cognitive science and earned him the Nobel Prize in 1978 for his insights into the nature of human cognition Signup and view all the answers

Describe the fundamental beliefs shared by cognitive psychologists.

Focus on Mental Processes: They assert that internal mental processes-such as perception, memory, and problem-solving—are vital for understanding behavior, contrary to behaviorists who focus solely on observable behavior. Information Processing Model: The human mind is often likened to a computer, processing information through various stages (input, storage, retrieval). Cognitive psychologists study how people understand, interpret, and remember information. Constructivist View: Cognitive psychologists believe that individuals actively construct their understanding of the world. Knowledge is not simply absorbed; it is built through experiences and cognitive processes Signup and view all the answers

Describe Hebb's contributions to psychology. Define cell assembly.

Donald Hebb was a foundational figure in psychology, particularly known for his work on the relationship between neuroscience and behavior. His notable contributions include: Hebb's Rule: Proposed that "cells that fire together wire together," suggesting that repeated stimulation of a group of neurons leads to the forming of strong relationships among them Cell Assemblies: Hebb defined a cell assembly as a group of neurons that become interconnected through repeated activation, forming a functional unit that can lead to the storage of memories and facilitate behavior. When activated, these assemblies represent complex ideas or memories Signup and view all the answers

Define evolutionary psychology. Explain how evolutionary psychology tries to account for a species' behaviour, and for differences in species' abilities or in species' traits—for example, aggressiveness between species or within species over time or in different cohorts.

Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical perspective that examines how evolutionary principles, such as natural selection, shape psychological traits and behaviors. It posits that many human behaviors and cognitive processes are adaptations that have evolved to solve problems faced by our ancestors. Signup and view all the answers

What is positive psychology and what are the main areas of interest in this field?

Positive psychology is a relatively new subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of positive subject experiences, individual traits, and institutions that facilitate well-being. This movement developed in response to traditional psychology's focus on mental disorders and pathologies, emphasizing the need to understand factors contributing to a fulfilling and meaningful life. Signup and view all the answers

Define psychology as it is used today.

Psychology is currently defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, which includes a diverse range of topics such as emotion, cognition, development, social interactions, and mental health. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the kinds of work that psychologists do in contemporary society, in both professional and research practice.

Clinical Psychologists: Assess and treat mental health disorders through therapeutic techniques Counseling Psychologists: Provide guidance and support for personal and interpersonal issues School Psychologists: Work directly with children and adolescents in educational settings to address learning and behavioral challenges Industrial-Organizational Psychologists: Apply psychological principles to optimize workplace productivity and employee well-being Forensic Psychologists: Operate within the legal system, addressing psychological issues related to criminal justice Research Psychology: Research psychologists conduct empirical studies in various fields such as cognitive, developmental, social, and health psychology. They may be employed in academic settings, government agencies, or private research organizations, focusing on broadening knowledge and understanding psychological phenomena through scientific inquiry Signup and view all the answers

Contrast professional psychology with academic/research psychology.

Professional Psychology: This branch involves applying psychological principles in a practical manner to assist individuals and groups, often through therapy and direct client interaction. Practitioners emphasize therapeutic interventions and assessments to address mental health issues, thereby integrating theoretical knowledge into practice. Academic/Research Psychology: In contrast, this area focuses on generating new knowledge through scientific inquiry. Academic psychologists engage in teaching, conducting studies, publishing research findings, and contributing to the theoretical foundations of psychology. Signup and view all the answers

Identify and briefly describe each of the research areas in modern psychology.

<ol> <li>Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.</li> <li>Developmental Psychology: Examines psychological growth and changes across the human lifespan.</li> <li>Social Psychology: Investigates how individuals are influenced by social contexts and interactions.</li> <li>Clinical Psychology: Focuses on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders.</li> <li>Health Psychology: Explores the psychological aspects of health, illness, and healthcare.</li> <li>Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Applies psychological principles to workplace environments.</li> <li>Neuroscience: Studies the biological bases of behavior and cognitive processes.</li> <li>Evolutionary Psychology: Investigates how evolutionary principles shape psychological traits and behaviors.</li> <li>Positive Psychology: Focuses on strengths, well-being, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Identify and briefly describe each of the main professional psychology specialties.

<ol> <li>Clinical Psychology: Involves the assessment and treatment of mental health disorders.</li> <li>Counseling Psychology: Provides support and guidance for personal and interpersonal issues.</li> <li>School Psychology: Addresses learning and behavioral problems in educational settings.</li> <li>Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Improves workplace productivity and employee satisfaction through psychological principles.</li> <li>Forensic Psychology: Applies psychological concepts to legal issues and the criminal justice system.</li> <li>Health Psychology: Studies how psychological factors influence health and healthcare practices</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Contrast psychiatry and psychology, especially clinical psychology.

Psychiatry: This is a medical specialty focusing primarily on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders via medical means, including prescriptions. Psychiatrists hold medical degrees and have specialized training in mental health. Clinical Psychology: While it also deals with mental health disorders, clinical psychology utilizes non-medical therapeutic techniques for treatment. Clinical psychologists primarily hold doctoral degrees in psychology, focusing on therapeutic interventions without prescribing medication Signup and view all the answers

Contrast educational psychology and school psychology.

Educational Psychology: Primarily a research discipline, educational psychology focuses on understanding how people learn and the effectiveness of educational interventions.Educational psychologists do not typically engage in direct therapeutic practices but may contribute to curriculum and assessment development. School Psychology: This profession involves direct interaction with students, parents, and educators to address psychological challenges and facilitate learning.School psychologists are licensed practitioners trained to provide assessments and interventions Signup and view all the answers

Contrast behaviourism and behavioural neuroscience (also biological psychology).

Behaviorism: A broad psychological perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors and the environmental factors influencing them. It is largely associated with theories of learning, such as operant conditioning, primarily articulated by B.F. Skinner. Behavioral Neuroscience (or Biological Psychology): This field investigates the biological underpinnings of behavior, including the structure and functioning of the brain and nervous system. It focuses on how biological processes and chemicals affect behavior, blending neuroscience with psychology to deepen the understanding of psychological phenomena Signup and view all the answers

Identify and describe the themes related to psychology as a field of study.

Psychology is Empirical: This theme emphasizes the necessity of acquiring knowledge through systematic observation rather than relying on intuition, common sense, or speculation. Empiricism is crucial in psychology, as it allows for the evaluation of claims based on observable evidence, especially in contentious areas like extra-sensory perception and psychoanalytic theory Signup and view all the answers

Define empiricism and explain how empiricism demands skepticism.

Empiricism is defined as a philosophical approach emphasizing that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory experience and systematic observation It underscores the necessity of evidence gathered through experimentation in forming conclusions about psychological phenomena. Empiricism demands skepticism by urging individuals to critically evaluate claims that lack empirical support. Signup and view all the answers

Identify and describe the themes related to psychology's subject matter.

Behavior is Determined by Multiple Causes: This theme stresses the complexity of behavioral causation, often arising from an interplay of various factors rather than a singular cause. Behavior is Shaped by One's Cultural Heritage: Many early psychological studies primarily examined a narrow demographic Heredity and Environment Jointly Influence Behavior: This theme recognizes that behavior results from a complex interaction People's Experience of the World is Highly Subjective: Individuals often perceive their interpretations of experiences as the most valid. Signup and view all the answers

What are some other things to consider when assessing the evolutionary theory that explains differences in the spatial reasoning and navigational abilities of men and women?

When assessing the evolutionary theory regarding differences in spatial reasoning and navigational abilities between men and women, it is essential to consider cultural influences, as activities traditionally encouraged for boys may enhance spatial skills compared to girls. Individual differences within gender groups also play a critical role, as not all men or women conform to average differences in spatial abilities. Furthermore, neuroscientific evidence may reveal structural differences in brain processing of spatial information between genders, providing insight into cognitive variations Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Origin of 'psychology'

Derived from Greek words 'psyche' (soul/mind) and 'logos' (study/discourse).

Psycho-logy Definition

Literally means "the study of the mind."