Organismal Ecology: Reproduction

Organismal Ecology

• Production of offspring is reproduction

Sexual Reproduction

• Gametes or sex cells are used and involves two parents with different genes.

Types of Union of Gametes

• Fusion of similar gametes which are usually motile isogamy
• Fusion of dissimilar gametes, in oogamy, a large immotile gamete, is heterogamy

Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction does not involve the use of gametes or sex cells and involves one parent with same genes (clones)
• Equal distribution of body parts is fission
• Pieces turn into new individuals by a process of fragmentation
• New individual growth from small buds is budding
• Spores are produced, then spores turn into a new individual via sporulation

Special Reproductive Terms

• Both female and male reproductive tissues in an individual result in "self-fertilization" by a hermaphrodite
• Both sperm and eggs are produced by the same individual when called monoecious
• Dioecious indicates separate sexes
• Union of gametes from genetically different parents constitute bisexual reproduction
• Development of a new individual from an unfertilized gamete is parthenogenesis

The Stages of Development

• Development starts with formation of sex cells, zygote formation, and subsequent stages in one's life span, terminated by death
• Gametogenesis yields haploid gametes
• Fertilization results in a unicellular diploid zygote
• Cleavage is a series of mitotic divisions to produce a multicellular blastula from a unicellular zygote
• Morphogenetic movements of cells form gastrula with distinct germ cell layers, cells begin to be determined by gastrulation
• Pluripotent cells can become any cell or tissue except placenta or embryo
• Totipotent cells can differentiate to become any kind of cell
• The nervous system, epidermis, and sense organs develop via the ectoderm
• Mesoderm contributes to muscles, bones, cartilage, circulatory, excretory, and reproductive organs.
• Endoderm produces digestive and respiratory organs, endocrine glands, germ cells, and gametes
• Different germ layers differentiate into specific organ systems during organogenesis

Male Reproductive System

• Sperm is produced in the testis
• Sperm is temporarily stored in the epididymis
• The scrotal sac or scrotum supports the testis and epididymis, and regulates temperature
• Sperm passes through the vas deferens from the testis before joining the urethra
• Connected to the urinary bladder, the urethra serves as a passageway for both sperm and urine
• The Seminal Vesicle secretes fluid that forms part of semen
• Semen becomes alkaline to protect sperm from vaginal acidity and provides sugars like fructose for energy via the Secretion
• The prostate gland produces alkaline fluid containing proteolytic enzymes, citric acid, phosphatases, and lipids

Bulbourethral/Cowper's Gland

• Paired glands that produce clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate, lubricating the urethra, neutralizing acidic urine, and flushing out residues

Female Reproductive System

• The clitoris in females is homologous to the penis
• The vagina is the main entrance to the female reproductive tract and receives the penis during intercourse.
• The cervix, where the vagina ends, leads to the uterus
• The uterus or womb is where the embryo develops
• The endometrial lining or endometrium is the innermost lining of the uterus where the embryo implants and develops
• Ovaries release oocytes during ovulation, which are caught by the fimbrae of the fallopian tube

Female Cycles

• Oocytes mature with the help of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), stimulating uterine lining growth for potential embryo implantation when in the Follicular Phase
• Ovulation occurs after the follicular phase
• Luteal Phase, remains of the follicle become the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone
• Secretory Phase- Luteal phase of the ovaries and the endometrium prepares for embryo implantation
• Endometrium sheds and causes menstrual discharge during the Menstrual "Period," which is the early follicular phase (1-5 days)
• The endometrium thickens due to estrogen secretion in the Proliferative Phase, which is the late follicular phase (8-14 days)

Human Development

• Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube, resulting in a unicellular zygote
• Cleavage also takes place in the fallopian tube post-fertilization
• Morula consists of 16 to 32 cells
• Blastula consists of 60+ cells
• Blastocyst is composed of the inner cell mass which becomes the embryo, and the trophoectoderm which becomes the placenta
• The blastocyst implants itself in the endometrium, signaling the start of pregnancy
• Gestation carries of embryo inside the female reproductive tract, can last up to 9 months
• The human embryo is the first 2 months of gestation
• The human fetus is between 3 to 9 months of gestation

Stages of Development

• Increase in size of an individual is growth
• Dizygotic Twins- Fraternal twins result from two or more separate fertilization events, with zygotes developing simultaneously
• Identical twins formed when a single zygote, created from one sperm and egg, splits during the first cleavage stage, are monozygotic twins

Contraception

• The process that blocks any one of the stages of reproduction in humans
• Ovulation is prevented to stops the oocyte from maturing via a Suppressing Method contraceptive
• Implantation is inhibited with methods taken by women to prevent them from ovulating
• Physical contraception that prevents fertilization via a barrier method
• A Condom, inserted on the male penis, prevents the release of sperm
• A Diaphragm blocks the cervix, preventing the passage of sperm into the uterus
• A Cervical Cap covers the cervix and blocks passage of the sperm into the uterus.
• Spermicidal jelly and foam is a chemical form of contraception
• Vasectomy of the vas deferens, or tube ligation of the fallopian tube, are surgical methods of contraception

Flower Anatomy

• Sepals- are the outermost whorls of a flower collectively called the "calyx"
• Petals- are inner to the sepal, may be brightly colored in some, collectively called "corolla"
• Stamen- inner to the petals, male reproductive structure of the flower, bears the "male sporangia" also known as the "microsporangia"
  • The anther contains the microsporangia that develops into pollen grains
  • The filament serves as the stalk of anther
• Pistils or Carpels- female reproductive structure of the flower, bears the "female sporangia" also known as the "megasporangia"
  • The stigma, part of the pistil, is where the pollen grain derived from the microsporangium attaches during pollination
  • The style serves as the stalk of the stigma and leads to the ovary
• The ovary is found at the base of the pistil, 1 or more ovules, eventually becomes the fruit
• The ovule contains the female sporangia or megasporangia, eventually becomes the seed

Flower Biology

• A complete flower- has with sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
• An incomplete flower- is a flower that lacks 1/ more of the floral whorls
• A monoecious plant has both staminate and carpellate flowers on the same individual
• A dioecious plant has- only either the staminate or carpellate flower
• Perfect or Bisexual- possesses both stamens and carpels
• Imperfect/ Unisexual- has only either the stamens or carpels

Gametophyte and Sporophyte

• Gametophyte- haploid stage that produces gametes via mitosis
• Develops into a sporophyte, "Haploid stage" multicellular and only the diploid stage is the fertilized egg cell
• Sporophyte- diploid stage, the most visible structure, produces haploid spores by meiosis in sporangia

Reproduction Cycles

• Multicellular haploid gametophyte; only the fertilized egg is diploid in the Haplontic Life Cycle
• A green alga, Chara has a dominant haploid stage, forming gametes that fuse into zygotes
• Zygotes undergo meiosis to become haploid, then mitosis forms a multicellular organism
• Alternating multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and haploid (gametophyte) stages occur in the Haplodiplontic Life Cycle
• Moss has a dominant haploid gametophyte producing gametes
• The zygote forms a sporophyte, which produces meiospores via meiosis.
• The meiospores germinate into new gametophytes
• The organism is in the diploid stage for most of its life in the Diplontic Life Cycle
• All cells are diploid, except for mature haploid sex cells (gametes).
• The gametes fuse during fertilization to restore the diploid number.

Development in Flowering Plants and Gametogenesis

• Microsporangium in the anther contains microsporocytes for Male Gametophyte
• Each microsporocyte undergoes meiosis, forming four haploid microspores.
• Microspores develop into pollen grains with two sperm nuclei and one tube nucleus.
• Megasporangium in the ovule contains megasporocytesytes for Female Gametophyte
• One undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid megaspores
• Three degenerates and the remaining megaspore divides mitotically three times
• Forms an embryo sac with eight haploid nuclei, partitioned into cells

Pollination and Fertilization

• Placement of the pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a carpel
• A mature pollen grain contains a tube cell and a generative cell
• The tube cell forms the pollen tube, which grows through the style to the ovule's micropyle
• The generative cell divides into two sperm nuclei that travel through the pollen tube
• Pollination can be animal-aided or wind-aided
• The female gametophyte, derived from a megasporocyte, is the embryo sac in the ovule
• The Sac contains eight nuclei in a mature state
• Through the style and entering the ovule via the micropyle, the pollen tube grows
• Sperm cells are released into the embryo sac
• One sperm fuses with the egg to form the zygote.
• The other fuses with the polar nuclei, forming the triploid endosperm that stores food for the embryo

Embryo Development - Embryogenesis

• The joining of the egg and one sperm nucleus forms a zygote
• A proembryo and suspensor, which anchors and transfers nutrients, is from mitotic division
• Cotyledons appear on the proembryo and are embryonic leaves that form inside the seed
• A plant with only one cotyledon inside its seed is a monocot (monocotyledonous)
• A plant with two cotyledons inside its seed is a dicot (dicotyledonous)

Ovule/Ovary Maturation

• The ovary matures into fruit while the ovule becomes the seed, the seed may become dormant for some time

Seed Germination

• A process that transforms a seed into a seeding
• The first step in seed germination, where the seed absorbs water, is imbibition
• Breaks dormancy, activating nutrient digestion in the endosperm or cotyledons for embryo growth
• Primary meristems form, leading to radicle and plumule emergence

Germination Types

• The cotyledon emerges above the ground, exposing the hypocotyl of the plumule with epigeal germination
• Cotyledon remains below the ground, concealing the hypocotyl via hypogeal germination
• The embryonic root that emerges from the seed is the radicle
• The embryonic shoot that emerges from the seed and breaks through the soil surface is the plumule
• The part of the plumule above the cotyledon is the epicotyl
• The part of the plumule below the cotyledon is the hypocotyl

Seedling Growth

• Primary meristems differentiate to become the differen plant tissues

Nutritional Adaptations

• Energy from sunlight and chemicals allow autotrophs to produce food
• Heterotrophs gain energy from other organisms because they can't create their own food

Digestive Functions/Processes

• The act of eating, swallowing, or feeding is ingestion
• Softening or breaking food into pieces by means of liquid is maceration
• The breakdown of food into particles is digestion and the breaking down process of the food taken
• The passage of digested nutrients as well as fluid is named absorption
• Expulsion of undigested and unabsorbed materials from the enzymes is egestion/ elimination
• Secretion is the release of enzymes.

Enzymes

• Biological catalysts responsible for speeding up reactions

Digestion Sites

• Intracellular digestion occurs inside, in lower organisms
• Extracellular digestion is outside, its the usage of alimentary canal and accessory organs for alimentary canal
• Mechanical digestion is the breaking down of food by physical means
• Chemical digestion involves the use of chemicals

Special Cases of Digestion:

• Allows softening of the food and serves as a storage by the crop
• The trachea servers as the airway to the lungs

Stomach Functions

• Aided by stones that are swallowed together with the food for the grinding of food in the Gizzard
• Digestive Diverticula are responsible for producing mucus and digestive enzymes needed in digestion, can serve as storage where it absorbs nutrients.
• Compartments with microflora act in producing celluloses to fully digest plant matter for cell wall component
• The muscular, stretchable sac below the diaphragm contains gastric juice in the stomach

Stomach Anatomy

• Rugae forms muscle folds in the stomach
• Gastric Juice formed:
  • Hydrochloric Acid has a 1 pH level that is enough to cause a chemical burn
  • Pepsin is responsible for breaking down protein into amino acids
  • Mucus protects the stomach so it doesn’t digest itself
  • Peptic Ulcer occurs when stomach lining encounters stomach acid

J-Shaped Organ

• Goblet Cells secrete mucus and Chief Cells produce pepsinogen
• HCI produced by Parietal Cells
• Sphincters regulates openings and closures
  • Between esophagus and stomach is the cardiac sphincter
  • Between the stomach and small intestine is the pyloric sphincter
• Chyme is a liquidy slop

Small Intestine

• The Small Intestine is generally 4.5m to 10.5m long, 250 sqm. The inside is lined with epithelial tissue
• The Epithelial Tissue contains ton of folds and ridges
• Villi/ Villus (p) contains capillaries which each are half millimeter long and covered in mircrovilli
• The Capillaries absorbs the nutrients
• The Duodenum- beginning of the small intestine is the location that:
  • The Bile Salt acts as an emulsifier of hydrophilic
• The Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder
• Jejunum and Ileum are the empty part

Accessory Digestive Organs

• The Pancreas secretes enzymes that breakdown all major food molecules
• The Liver Creates bile
• The Gallbladder Stores bile salt, breaks down fatty stuff

Intestines

• The Large Intestine removes bile salt, is wider and shorter than the small intestine and does not contain villi
• The Cecum the beginning of the large intestine
• The Appendix acts as a safe house for good bacteria
• The Rectum a short extension of the large intestine, final segment of the digestive tract, triggers expulsion of feces with anal sphincter

Excretion

• Anus is the terminal opening through which feces are expelled
• Engulfment of organic fragments or particles occurs in Phagocytosis
• The Uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell ( liquid) occurs in Pinocytosis
• Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis relies on membrane receptor recognition of specific solutes

Plant Nutrition

• Plants need water, carbon dioxide and elements/nutrients (essential and trace)

Water Routes

• Symplast Route- is a route through plasmodesmata
• Apoplast Route- runs along the cell wall

Specialized Structures

• Specialized structures for plant life and absorption
• Root Hairs- are extensions of specialized epidermal cells
• Root Nodules- are localized swellings in root of certain plants where bacterial cells exist symbiotically with the plant
• Mycorrhizae or Mycorrhiza are for symbiotic interaction between a young root and fungus, and are plants and soil microbes

Plant Nutritional Adaptations

• Symbiosis occurs within the plant for soil microbes
• Symbiosis occurs in plants and is linked to fungi
• Parasitism on dead plants and the process of predation

Respiration

• The main goal to exchange O2 to CO2 takes place when an organism breathes
• External Respiration facilitates environment to body
• Cellular Respiration facilitates cell to cell gas exchange and is responsible for the production of ATP.
• Pressures must be moist for Respiratory Organs to diffuse easier via Pressure Gradients
• Small surface area of Surface-to-Volume Ratio is required
• Rate of Ventilation varies per organism

Blood and Hemloymph

• Ventilation of Blood, carries oxygen in vertebrates via closed circulatory system
• Ventilation of Hemolymph, serves as blood for invertebrates via open circulatory
• Respiratory Pigments/ Proteins support transport of gasses by binding
• Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide levels are controlled by nervous and and respiratory systems
• The Brain monitors the pH of cerebrospinal fluid through sensors
• The Aorta and Carotid Arteries monitor blood levels of oxygen as well as CO2 via blood
• Land animals get easier passage than aquatic animals

Simple Diffusion

• Terrestrial Animals get oxygen more easily than aquatic animals
• Direct/Simple Diffusion requires direct contact
• Single celled organisms that respire, through the usage of skin, are called Cutaneous Respiration
  • Flatworms perform this

Insect Respirtation

• Tracheal System-respiration system of insects
  • Tracheae forms a system of tubes
  • Tracheoles are within the end of tracheae and fluid filled channels
  • Spiracles are valves that open and close

Gill Respiratory system

• Gills are the primary respiratory mechanism of aquatic animals
  • External Gills extend from the body through simple diffusion
  • Internal Gills are inside the body and supplied by blood vessels countercurrent flow
• Buccal Cavity is the mouth/ area inside the mouth
• Opercular Cavity is the space behind the gills and under the gill cover
• Operculum is the gill cover
  • Buccal Pump enters H20 through the mouth
  • Opercular Pump flows H20 through the operculum
• There are different exits and entrances via unidirectional flow
• Same exit and entrance for Bidirectional flow
• Countercurrent Flow, also known as Respiration, has water and blood flow in different directions
• Lungs of lungfish, a single structure, direct diffusion, and is the Gas Bladder/ Swim Bladderas
• Amphibian Lungs vary depending on the specie
• Amphibians can live on both and water
• Avian Lungs Can reserved H20
• Mammalian lungs, diaphragm with alveoli
• Visceral Pleura covers the epithelium of mammalian lungs -Parietal Pleura lines the surface of the chest -Pleural Cavity will expand the lungs

Blood Systems

• Red Blood Cells carries oxygen and transports oxygen throughout the body
• Hemoglobin- “heme” 5% contains iron and the color red, 95% is the “globin” a colorless protein
• Inspiration or Intake of Gas occurs for ribs that will expand and for diaphragm for contraction

Expiration or Release of Gas happens for the ribs that return to normal and the diaphragm that relaxes

• Closed-Circulatory and Cardiovascular delivers blood through the body
• Open-Circulatory of vessels and heart pumps blood through them directly Arteries carry, through tubes and vessels, oxygen-rich blood AWAY from the heart to the body -Veins carry, through tubes and vessels, low oxygen/ high carbon dioxide FROM the body to the heart -Capillaries connect the veins and arteries to the cells for various processes-

Blood Composition

• Blood is liquid that carries substances throughout the body -Plasma 55%, liquid and 90% dissolved, which is around 10% solids -Albumin, from the plasma proteins, regulates osmotic equilibrium -Globulins, immunoglobulins contribute to immune -Fibrinogen supports the coagulation of blood.

Cell Components

• Cellular Components 45% cells and fragments -Erythrocytes contains RBC and transport of gasses via hemoglobin -Leukocytes WBC are responsible in immune response of the body -Thrombocytes are responsible for blood coagulation but release chemicals that needed for the clotting process

Pumping Body of Hearts

Pumps throughout the body

Humans need water in their body. Their organic and inorganic substances must be stabilized among others (blood production) Intracellular-Fluids stay inside the body Extracellular- Outside-Fluid -Blood Plasma -Interstitial Fluid- surrounding -White Blood helps out in white blood cell production and balance Granulocytes; Neutrophils supports microorganism balance within cytoplasm Basophil released histamines, and support inflamation Eosinophil helps and attacks parasites with immune responses: Agranulocytes -Monocytes support phogocytosis with the same actions Lymphoctyes support immune actions. All support to avoid impacts towards health"

Heart Structures

: Asthma increases resistances of a flow; Muscles contracts to support issues Emphysema is a abnormal issue that comes form lungs along with some smoking issues (diseases, and old terms)

Right pumps include the:Left Ventricle pump as well. Which creates oxygen blood support Veins Arteries Capillaries The arota system Atriums support actions of: collecting deoxygenated and re-circulating blood Right Auricle Actions avoids to create flows again which leads to: Aerotic Valve, avoid creating back flow issues Bicuspid valve to avoid some blood issues and control Pulmonic circulation and blood support creates heart to longs, from one to another Bicuspid valve support aorta actions

Gas Exchanges in Plants

• Stomata does gas exchange
• Lenticles gas exchange in stem, along with stems
• Aieral Roots are for air support

Humans and Actions

Lateral moves come from plants Cohesion connects the molecules Pholem cells help transport substance up/ The fluid goes, water passes/ moves through; then moves upwards Passive helps remove substances that are not require, it takes actions to help take substance it needs from: Fluids to collect: excretory functions.

Osmosis

Collect- it remove: balance Concentrate- removes to balances out from one’s body Actions include: -Osmocontrometers -Osmoregulations

Sytems

Are to help the fluids which are more aquatic avoid Water systems : Protozaon -Reptials/mammail. actions includes: :tubile, nephrid

Kidneys

Composed of components that has blood actions Cartiex supports zones Medula the inner zone to have: -Capsule that covers all over (fibrous) -Channels: 1.3 has a million actions.

Capusales

• Long fluid in actions support functions Actions includes helps
• Gormerual, which is long as well with fluids, it filters
• Tube reabsorption of fluid.
• Secretions with actions of waste
• Produced for with % percentage of components
• Formed for small elements The ammonium supports of some actions For sulphates functions that has to do with some amino acids

Organs

Helps: Lung, which helps remove actions by carbon Livers support actions with more aid Skins support waste in action

Endocrines System

Contains parts inside organs; it supports functions and balances -Regulation -Responts It’s control as well as it carbohydrates. Actions functions Salt or water