Organic Chemistry Overview

Definition: Study of carbon-containing compounds and their properties, structures, reactions, and synthesis.
Importance: Essential in pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, food chemistry, and biochemistry.

Hydrocarbons:
- Compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon.
- Types:
  - Aliphatic: Linear or branched (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes).
  - Aromatic: Contain one or more benzene rings.
Functional Groups:
- Specific groups of atoms that impart characteristic properties and reactions.
- Common groups:
  - Hydroxyl (-OH): Alcohols.
  - Carbonyl (C=O): Aldehydes and ketones.
  - Carboxyl (-COOH): Carboxylic acids.
  - Amino (-NH2): Amines.
  - Ester (-COOR): Esters.
Isomerism:
- Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.
- Types:
  - Structural isomers: Different connectivity.
  - Stereoisomers: Same connectivity but different spatial arrangements (cis-trans, enantiomers).
Reactions:
- Types of reactions in organic chemistry:
  - Addition: Atoms add to a double or triple bond.
  - Elimination: Removal of atoms to form double or triple bonds.
  - Substitution: Exchange of one functional group for another.
  - Rearrangement: Reorganization of the carbon skeleton.
Mechanisms:
- Detailed descriptions of the steps involved in organic reactions.
- Types include:
  - Nucleophilic substitution (SN1 and SN2).
  - Electrophilic addition.
  - Radical reactions.

Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons (single bonds).
Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one double bond).
Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons (at least one triple bond).
Aromatic Compounds: Contain benzene or related structures.
Alcohols: Organic compounds with one or more hydroxyl groups.
Ethers: Compounds with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Aldehydes and Ketones: Contain carbonyl groups, differing in structure.
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives: Contain carboxyl groups and can form esters, amides, etc.

IUPAC Naming: Systematic naming based on structure and functional groups.
- Identify longest carbon chain.
- Number the chain to give the lowest locants to functional groups.
- Use prefixes and suffixes to denote substituents and functional groups.

Techniques for identifying organic compounds:
- NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance): Determines structure based on magnetic properties of nuclei.
- IR (Infrared Spectroscopy): Identifies functional groups by measuring molecular vibrations.
- MS (Mass Spectrometry): Analyzes molecular weight and structure by ionizing chemical species.

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon-containing compounds, encompassing their properties, structures, reactions, and synthesis.
Vital in sectors like pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, food chemistry, and biochemistry.

Hydrocarbons: Composed of hydrogen and carbon; can be classified into aliphatic (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes) and aromatic (containing benzene rings).
Functional Groups: Distinct atom groups that determine the behavior of molecules; key functional groups include:
- Hydroxyl (-OH) for alcohols
- Carbonyl (C=O) for aldehydes and ketones
- Carboxyl (-COOH) for carboxylic acids
- Amino (-NH2) for amines
- Ester (-COOR) for esters
Isomerism: Describes compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures, categorized into:
- Structural isomers with different atom connections
- Stereoisomers that differ in spatial arrangements (like cis-trans and enantiomers)
Reactions in Organic Chemistry: Include:
- Addition: Atoms added to double/triple bonds
- Elimination: Removal of atoms forms double/triple bonds
- Substitution: Replacement of a functional group
- Rearrangement: Changes in carbon skeleton organization
Reactions Mechanisms: Describe stepwise processes in reactions; includes:
- Nucleophilic substitution (SN1/SN2)
- Electrophilic addition
- Radical reactions

Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons characterized by single bonds.
Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond.
Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one triple bond.
Aromatic Compounds: Compounds that contain benzene or similar structures.
Alcohols: Organic compounds featuring one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
Ethers: Composed of an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Aldehydes and Ketones: Both contain carbonyl groups but differ in their structure.
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives: Compounds with carboxyl groups, including esters and amides.

IUPAC Naming: A systematic approach based on molecular structure and functional groups; involves:
- Identifying the longest carbon chain
- Numbering the chain to assign lowest locants to functional groups
- Utilizing prefixes and suffixes to represent substituents and functional groups

Techniques used for identifying organic compounds include:
- NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance): Reveals structure based on the magnetic properties of nuclei.
- IR (Infrared Spectroscopy): Identifies functional groups through molecular vibrations.
- MS (Mass Spectrometry): Determines molecular weight and structure via ionization of chemical species.

Pharmaceuticals: Incorporates drug design and synthesis processes.
Materials Science: Involves the creation of polymers and innovative substances.
Biochemistry: Focuses on analyzing biomolecules and metabolic pathways.

Random scattering of substances occurs until equilibrium is achieved.
Can transpire through living membranes with particles moving in both directions; diffusion always occurs down the concentration gradient.
Dialysis is a specific type of diffusion for crystalloids, such as salts and sugars, which diffuse down the concentration gradient.
Facilitated diffusion involves molecules in a membrane that assist substances in passing through more easily.

Defined as the diffusion of water through a selectively permeable (semi) membrane.
A concentration gradient of at least one substance must be maintained across the membrane for osmosis to occur.
Water moves down its concentration gradient, striving for equilibrium between both sides of the membrane.
As water volume increases on one side of the membrane, osmotic pressure also rises.
Three types of solutions relate to osmosis: isotonic (equal concentration), hypertonic (higher concentration outside), and hypotonic (lower concentration outside).