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Questions and Answers
What is the distinction between research methodology and research methods analogous to?
What is the distinction between research methodology and research methods analogous to?
What is included in research methodology?
What is included in research methodology?
Why is it important to select an appropriate general methodology before specific methods are chosen?
Why is it important to select an appropriate general methodology before specific methods are chosen?
What is the distinction between methodology and methods in research?
What is the distinction between methodology and methods in research?
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Why are units of analysis important in research projects?
Why are units of analysis important in research projects?
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What can serve as units of analysis in criminal justice research?
What can serve as units of analysis in criminal justice research?
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What do operational definitions specify in scientific research?
What do operational definitions specify in scientific research?
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What are constructs in scientific research?
What are constructs in scientific research?
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Why is the precise use of language crucial in scientific research?
Why is the precise use of language crucial in scientific research?
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What is an operational definition in research?
What is an operational definition in research?
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Which type of validity refers to the extent to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?
Which type of validity refers to the extent to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?
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What does internal validity refer to in research?
What does internal validity refer to in research?
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Which of the following best describes construct validity?
Which of the following best describes construct validity?
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What is the main purpose of specifying operational definitions for each value of a variable in research?
What is the main purpose of specifying operational definitions for each value of a variable in research?
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Which term refers to the degree to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?
Which term refers to the degree to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?
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What does test-retest reliability refer to?
What does test-retest reliability refer to?
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In the context of reliability assessment, why might obtaining nearly identical answers from a judge in a series of questions raise concerns?
In the context of reliability assessment, why might obtaining nearly identical answers from a judge in a series of questions raise concerns?
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What potential challenge arises in interpreting the results of a test-retest reliability assessment when the judge's answers to the same questions differ after a 2-week interval?
What potential challenge arises in interpreting the results of a test-retest reliability assessment when the judge's answers to the same questions differ after a 2-week interval?
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What is the primary difference between test-retest reliability and split-half reliability?
What is the primary difference between test-retest reliability and split-half reliability?
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In research design, what does the choice of methodology depend on?
In research design, what does the choice of methodology depend on?
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What is the primary goal of exploratory research?
What is the primary goal of exploratory research?
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What is the main difference between longitudinal and panel research designs in descriptive studies?
What is the main difference between longitudinal and panel research designs in descriptive studies?
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What are the key components involved in descriptive research in criminal justice?
What are the key components involved in descriptive research in criminal justice?
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What did Marvin Wolfgang and his associates study in their longitudinal research in criminal justice?
What did Marvin Wolfgang and his associates study in their longitudinal research in criminal justice?
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What is a challenge in panel design due to loss of panel members over time?
What is a challenge in panel design due to loss of panel members over time?
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In multiple group trend designs, what is involved?
In multiple group trend designs, what is involved?
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What is an example of a descriptive report for observing changes over time?
What is an example of a descriptive report for observing changes over time?
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What does the quality of descriptive research depend on?
What does the quality of descriptive research depend on?
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What is a concern specific to panel design?
What is a concern specific to panel design?
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What is a distinguishing feature of cross-sectional designs compared to longitudinal designs?
What is a distinguishing feature of cross-sectional designs compared to longitudinal designs?
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What is primarily concerned with the form of arguments rather than their content?
What is primarily concerned with the form of arguments rather than their content?
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What is the general form of a conditional proposition?
What is the general form of a conditional proposition?
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What does scientific explanation aim to accomplish?
What does scientific explanation aim to accomplish?
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Which of the following best describes the relationship between causes and resultant conditions in research?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between causes and resultant conditions in research?
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What is the role of intervening variables in research causality?
What is the role of intervening variables in research causality?
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How do feedback relationships impact variables in research causality?
How do feedback relationships impact variables in research causality?
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What are the three criteria that must be satisfied to infer a causal relationship between conditions?
What are the three criteria that must be satisfied to infer a causal relationship between conditions?
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What does explanatory research design help establish in terms of causal relationships?
What does explanatory research design help establish in terms of causal relationships?
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What is an example of a hypothesis about a causal relationship between two variables?
What is an example of a hypothesis about a causal relationship between two variables?
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What type of research design is used to study the impact of unexpected events like civil disorders, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters?
What type of research design is used to study the impact of unexpected events like civil disorders, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters?
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What is the primary disadvantage of after-only research design in terms of causal inference?
What is the primary disadvantage of after-only research design in terms of causal inference?
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What is the advantage of logically integrated theories in explanatory research?
What is the advantage of logically integrated theories in explanatory research?
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What determines if a particular explanatory hypothesis should be accepted or rejected in research design?
What determines if a particular explanatory hypothesis should be accepted or rejected in research design?
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What constitutes a theory in the context of explanatory research?
What constitutes a theory in the context of explanatory research?
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What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?
What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?
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What is the primary purpose of a before-after research design?
What is the primary purpose of a before-after research design?
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What does the before-after research design provide evidence of?
What does the before-after research design provide evidence of?
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In the context of the example provided, what was the belief underlying the before-after research design?
In the context of the example provided, what was the belief underlying the before-after research design?
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Which of the following is a serious shortcoming of before-after research design?
Which of the following is a serious shortcoming of before-after research design?
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What does internal validity refer to in research design?
What does internal validity refer to in research design?
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Which factor poses a serious danger of selection bias in before-after research design?
Which factor poses a serious danger of selection bias in before-after research design?
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Which design allows for the assessment or neutralization of potential influential variables by including an experimental group and a control group?
Which design allows for the assessment or neutralization of potential influential variables by including an experimental group and a control group?
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What is the primary advantage of the Solomon four-group design in comparison to the basic experimental design?
What is the primary advantage of the Solomon four-group design in comparison to the basic experimental design?
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Which experimental design provides strong evidence of concomitant variation and appropriate time sequence, strengthening the argument for a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables?
Which experimental design provides strong evidence of concomitant variation and appropriate time sequence, strengthening the argument for a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables?
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What is the primary purpose of the control group in experimental research?
What is the primary purpose of the control group in experimental research?
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What is the main difference between matching and random assignment in experimental research?
What is the main difference between matching and random assignment in experimental research?
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What is the primary purpose of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?
What is the primary purpose of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?
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What does the process of random assignment involve in experimental research?
What does the process of random assignment involve in experimental research?
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What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
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What is the new problem introduced by the control group in experimental research?
What is the new problem introduced by the control group in experimental research?
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What is the primary purpose of a control group in experimental research?
What is the primary purpose of a control group in experimental research?
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What is the primary advantage of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?
What is the primary advantage of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?
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What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
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What do longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research offer when used with control groups?
What do longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research offer when used with control groups?
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What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?
What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?
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What is the primary purpose of using triangulation in research?
What is the primary purpose of using triangulation in research?
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What does the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods assess in research projects?
What does the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods assess in research projects?
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What does the presence of more 'yeses' in a row in the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods indicate?
What does the presence of more 'yeses' in a row in the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods indicate?
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What is the role of the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
What is the role of the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?
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Why is it important to use triangulation in research?
Why is it important to use triangulation in research?
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What is a key difference between experimental and quasi-experimental design?
What is a key difference between experimental and quasi-experimental design?
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What is the purpose of triangulation in research?
What is the purpose of triangulation in research?
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What is a challenge in quasi-experimental design?
What is a challenge in quasi-experimental design?
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What is a requirement for causal inference logic?
What is a requirement for causal inference logic?
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What determines the quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences?
What determines the quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences?
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Study Notes
Operational Definitions and Variables in Research
- Operational definition specifies how a researcher will categorize and measure variables
- Variables are categories that can be divided into subcategories or measured values
- Examples of variables include gender, crime, stress, and size of police department
- Researcher specifies operational definitions for each value of the variable to observe stability or change
- Validity refers to the extent to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world
- Face validity is when a concept or measuring device appears to represent what a researcher claims it does
- Construct validity is when a concept or measurement is logically related to other concepts or measures in the same realm of inquiry
- Predictive validity is when predictions derived from a concept or measuring device are accurate and consistent with other validated measures
- External validity is the applicability of research results to persons or events other than those included in the study
- Internal validity is the degree to which the criteria for causal inference have been satisfied in a particular research design
- The text discusses the types of validity and how they apply to the quality of categorizations or measurements of variables
- The text also addresses common threats to internal validity and ways of managing them in explanatory research
Research Designs and Descriptive Research
- Small percentage of juveniles responsible for a large percentage of offenses, including serious ones
- Study replicated in Philadelphia and Racine, Wisconsin, showing similar delinquency patterns
- Subject mortality is a challenge in panel design due to loss of panel members over time
- Repeated questioning in panel design may lead to changes in behavior (Hawthorne effect)
- Multiple group trend designs involve observing different groups at different points in time
- Cross-sectional designs involve observing subgroups at a single point in time
- Descriptive research aims to provide valid and reliable information about a phenomenon
- Descriptive research quality depends on the appropriateness of concepts and the research design
- Census and Uniform Crime Reports are examples of descriptive reports for observing changes over time
- Panel design addresses the same group over time, while multiple group trend and cross-sectional designs involve different groups
- Loss of subjects over time is a concern in panel design but not in multiple group trend designs
- Cross-sectional designs are less time-consuming and expensive than longitudinal designs
Research Designs and Explanatory Hypotheses
- Explanatory research involves searching for causal relationships among different conditions or variables using various research designs.
- Pre-experimental designs are the least persuasive type of research designs and include after-only and before-after designs.
- After-only design assesses the effect of an event after it has occurred, with no prior observation of the dependent variable.
- After-only design is used to study the impact of unexpected events like civil disorders, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters.
- After-only design provides the least persuasive basis for causal inference due to methodological hazards and lack of concomitant variation.
- To strengthen inferences from after-only research, a researcher can study a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition.
- The researcher creates and imposes a tentative, hypothetical structure on the phenomenon being studied.
- The researcher decides how to formulate hypotheses and can change the formulation if desired.
- Two or more related, empirically testable hypotheses constitute a theory.
- Logically integrated theories have the advantage of allowing new hypotheses to be derived and providing empirical support for all hypotheses in the theory.
- The structure of the research design and the data collected by the researcher determine if a particular explanatory hypothesis should be accepted or rejected.
- Explanatory research designs are differentiated by their forms and the strength of the arguments they permit concerning the existence of cause-and-effect relationships.
Experimental Research Designs and Causal Inference
- The Solomon four-group design includes two additional research groups and allows measuring variables such as the effects of pre-measurement of the dependent variable.
- It does not provide stronger support for inferring a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables compared to the before-after-with-control design.
- The control group helps solve problems associated with justifying causal inference, but introduces the new problem of potential initial differences between experimental and control groups.
- Matching and random assignment are strategies used to ensure similarity between experimental and control groups.
- Matching involves finding pairs of subjects or groups that closely resemble each other and assigning them to the experimental and control groups.
- Matching controls variables that subjects are matched on, freeing the researcher to explore the effects of hypothesized independent variables without worrying about the influence of matched variables.
- Random assignment involves placing individuals in the two groups according to the laws of probability to minimize systematic differences between the groups.
- Both matching and random assignment help ensure similarity between experimental and control groups, but there remains some uncertainty concerning this similarity.
- Longitudinal explanatory designs, such as panel and multiple group trend designs, may be used in evaluation research to assess the effects of interventions over time.
- For example, a study might measure attitudes toward the police before and after a police department's public relations campaign to assess its effects in a particular urban neighborhood.
- The process of random assignment involves assigning subjects to different groups according to the principles of probability sampling.
- Random assignment does not guarantee the elimination of systematic differences between groups.
Quasi-Experimental Designs and Triangulation in Research
- Experimental research typically happens in a controlled laboratory setting, but it is challenging to exercise controls in criminal justice research.
- Quasi-experimental design is often used in criminal justice research due to ethical, practical, and methodological reasons.
- Quasi-experimental design lacks random assignment to experimental and control groups and uses a comparison group instead of a control group.
- In experimental design, membership in experimental and control groups is determined before the experiment begins, allowing for matching or random assignment.
- Finding two similar groups in the real world for quasi-experimental design is extremely difficult, undermining support for causal inference.
- Causal inference logic requires changes in the independent variable to occur before changes in the dependent variable.
- Gathering data at one point in time about variables whose values have changed at some previous time can approximate the time sequence requirements of experimental design.
- The choice of research design must be made explicit before the research begins, especially in quantitative explanatory research.
- The quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences depend on the structure of the design and the researcher's knowledge of its characteristics, strengths, and limitations.
- Triangulation involves collecting different types of data from several sources using numerous research methods with respect to a single research question.
- Observation, interviews, and document analysis are used in triangulation to enhance confidence in research conclusions.
- Triangulation helps in justifying conclusions by using multiple sources and methods to corroborate findings.
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Description
Test your knowledge of operational definitions and variables in research with this quiz. Explore the concepts of validity, including face, construct, predictive, external, and internal validity, and learn about common threats to internal validity in research.