Operational Definitions

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What is the distinction between research methodology and research methods analogous to?

The difference between hypothesis and experiment

The difference between population and sample

The difference between strategy and tactics (correct)

The difference between theory and observation

What is included in research methodology?

Making graphs and tables

The logic of causal inferences

Specific data-gathering and analyzing techniques

The study of the role of concepts, variables and their definitions in research (correct)

Why is it important to select an appropriate general methodology before specific methods are chosen?

The credibility of research depends on the quality of the researcher’s methodology (correct)

Specific methods are easier to choose once a general methodology is selected

It is a standard practice in research to start with general methodology

The research report will be more comprehensive with a general methodology in place

What is the distinction between methodology and methods in research?

Methodology refers to the general plan formulated for achieving the researcher's goals, while methods are the specific tactics or techniques selected for a research project. Signup and view all the answers

Why are units of analysis important in research projects?

They are crucial for organizing observations and drawing conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

What can serve as units of analysis in criminal justice research?

Individuals, groups, organizations, social interactions, and social artifacts Signup and view all the answers

What do operational definitions specify in scientific research?

The actions the scientist will perform to recognize an instance of a category Signup and view all the answers

What are constructs in scientific research?

Concepts defined in terms of other concepts Signup and view all the answers

Why is the precise use of language crucial in scientific research?

To prevent different researchers from attaching different meanings to the same words Signup and view all the answers

What is an operational definition in research?

It specifies how a researcher will categorize and measure variables Signup and view all the answers

Which type of validity refers to the extent to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?

Face validity Signup and view all the answers

What does internal validity refer to in research?

The degree to which the criteria for causal inference have been satisfied Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes construct validity?

When a concept or measurement is logically related to other concepts or measures in the same realm of inquiry Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of specifying operational definitions for each value of a variable in research?

To observe stability or change Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the degree to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world?

Validity Signup and view all the answers

What does test-retest reliability refer to?

The degree of similarity of results from repeated application of the same measurement device or process to the same phenomenon Signup and view all the answers

In the context of reliability assessment, why might obtaining nearly identical answers from a judge in a series of questions raise concerns?

It may indicate the need to differentiate between reliability and the testing of memory Signup and view all the answers

What potential challenge arises in interpreting the results of a test-retest reliability assessment when the judge's answers to the same questions differ after a 2-week interval?

Distinguishing between true changes in the phenomenon and changes due to unreliable measurement Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between test-retest reliability and split-half reliability?

Test-retest reliability measures consistency when the same measuring device is applied repeatedly, while split-half reliability evaluates consistency when a questionnaire is divided into two groups and compared. Signup and view all the answers

In research design, what does the choice of methodology depend on?

The researcher's goal, which may be description or explanation of a phenomenon. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of exploratory research?

To gain a better understanding of a phenomenon before conducting a formal study. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between longitudinal and panel research designs in descriptive studies?

Longitudinal research design involves observing the same group of subjects on two or more occasions over a period of time, while panel designs involve observing the same group of individuals at different points in time Signup and view all the answers

What are the key components involved in descriptive research in criminal justice?

Formulation of useful concepts, reliability, validity, precision of observations, and research design Signup and view all the answers

What did Marvin Wolfgang and his associates study in their longitudinal research in criminal justice?

A birth cohort of all males born in Philadelphia in 1945 through their 18th birthdays Signup and view all the answers

What is a challenge in panel design due to loss of panel members over time?

Subject mortality Signup and view all the answers

In multiple group trend designs, what is involved?

Observing different groups at different points in time Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a descriptive report for observing changes over time?

Uniform Crime Reports Signup and view all the answers

What does the quality of descriptive research depend on?

Appropriateness of concepts and the research design Signup and view all the answers

What is a concern specific to panel design?

Loss of subjects over time Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing feature of cross-sectional designs compared to longitudinal designs?

Observing subgroups at a single point in time Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily concerned with the form of arguments rather than their content?

Logic Signup and view all the answers

What is the general form of a conditional proposition?

If x, then y Signup and view all the answers

What does scientific explanation aim to accomplish?

Provide empirical and logical support for causal relationships Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between causes and resultant conditions in research?

Causes can be related to resultant conditions as necessary, sufficient, or both necessary and sufficient causes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of intervening variables in research causality?

Intervening variables come between the independent and dependent variables, creating a causal chain or sequence of variables in time. Signup and view all the answers

How do feedback relationships impact variables in research causality?

Feedback relationships involve changes in variables that may produce another change in the original variable, creating interconnected systems. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three criteria that must be satisfied to infer a causal relationship between conditions?

Concomitant variation, appropriate sequence in time, and elimination of other possible causes Signup and view all the answers

What does explanatory research design help establish in terms of causal relationships?

Concomitant variation and time sequence, but never entirely eliminate other possible independent variables Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a hypothesis about a causal relationship between two variables?

Poverty as the independent variable and crime as the dependent variable Signup and view all the answers

What type of research design is used to study the impact of unexpected events like civil disorders, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters?

Pre-experimental design Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of after-only research design in terms of causal inference?

Methodological hazards and lack of concomitant variation Signup and view all the answers

What is the advantage of logically integrated theories in explanatory research?

Allowing new hypotheses to be derived and providing empirical support for all hypotheses in the theory Signup and view all the answers

What determines if a particular explanatory hypothesis should be accepted or rejected in research design?

The structure of the research design and the data collected Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes a theory in the context of explanatory research?

Two or more related, empirically testable hypotheses Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?

To strengthen inferences from after-only research Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a before-after research design?

To observe the dependent variable before and after the independent variable is introduced Signup and view all the answers

What does the before-after research design provide evidence of?

Concomitant variation and appropriate time sequence between the variables Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the example provided, what was the belief underlying the before-after research design?

Cell wall color caused a change in the number of inmate assaults Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a serious shortcoming of before-after research design?

Unforeseen and unobserved events can affect causal inference Signup and view all the answers

What does internal validity refer to in research design?

The degree to which causal inference criteria are met Signup and view all the answers

Which factor poses a serious danger of selection bias in before-after research design?

Self or other non-researcher selection into experimental/control groups Signup and view all the answers

Which design allows for the assessment or neutralization of potential influential variables by including an experimental group and a control group?

Before-after-with-control design Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of the Solomon four-group design in comparison to the basic experimental design?

Assessment of potential causal variables Signup and view all the answers

Which experimental design provides strong evidence of concomitant variation and appropriate time sequence, strengthening the argument for a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables?

Before-after-with-control design Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the control group in experimental research?

To ensure similarity between experimental and control groups Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between matching and random assignment in experimental research?

Matching ensures similarity between experimental and control groups, while random assignment introduces uncertainty concerning this similarity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?

To assess the effects of interventions over time Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of random assignment involve in experimental research?

Assigning subjects to different groups according to the principles of probability sampling Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?

To measure the effects of pre-measurement of the dependent variable Signup and view all the answers

What is the new problem introduced by the control group in experimental research?

Potential initial differences between experimental and control groups Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a control group in experimental research?

To provide a basis for comparison to assess the effects of the presumed causal condition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research?

They provide evidence concerning both the duration and the changes in the intensity of the effects of the presumed causal condition Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential use of a study employing the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?

To assess the effectiveness of advertising campaigns in changing attitudes toward crime and criminal justice Signup and view all the answers

What do longitudinal explanatory designs in evaluation research offer when used with control groups?

They offer strong evidence for causal inference Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of studying a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition in after-only research?

To provide a basis for comparison to assess the effects of the presumed causal condition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using triangulation in research?

To increase researchers' confidence in their findings and to reveal discrepancies in data Signup and view all the answers

What does the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods assess in research projects?

The relative strengths of a research project based on specific characteristics of the research design Signup and view all the answers

What does the presence of more 'yeses' in a row in the Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods indicate?

Higher level or grade and more desirable design characteristics Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Solomon four-group design in experimental research?

Provides strong evidence of concomitant variation and appropriate time sequence Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to use triangulation in research?

To minimize error resulting from the use of any single method for collecting data and to reveal discrepancies in data Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between experimental and quasi-experimental design?

Experimental design involves random assignment to experimental and control groups, while quasi-experimental design lacks random assignment. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of triangulation in research?

Triangulation involves collecting different types of data from several sources using numerous research methods to enhance confidence in research conclusions. Signup and view all the answers

What is a challenge in quasi-experimental design?

Finding two similar groups in the real world for quasi-experimental design is extremely difficult, undermining support for causal inference. Signup and view all the answers

What is a requirement for causal inference logic?

Causal inference logic requires changes in the independent variable to occur before changes in the dependent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What determines the quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences?

The structure of the design and the researcher's knowledge of its characteristics, strengths, and limitations determine the quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Operational Definitions and Variables in Research

Operational definition specifies how a researcher will categorize and measure variables
Variables are categories that can be divided into subcategories or measured values
Examples of variables include gender, crime, stress, and size of police department
Researcher specifies operational definitions for each value of the variable to observe stability or change
Validity refers to the extent to which a categorization or measurement reflects a characteristic of the real world
Face validity is when a concept or measuring device appears to represent what a researcher claims it does
Construct validity is when a concept or measurement is logically related to other concepts or measures in the same realm of inquiry
Predictive validity is when predictions derived from a concept or measuring device are accurate and consistent with other validated measures
External validity is the applicability of research results to persons or events other than those included in the study
Internal validity is the degree to which the criteria for causal inference have been satisfied in a particular research design
The text discusses the types of validity and how they apply to the quality of categorizations or measurements of variables
The text also addresses common threats to internal validity and ways of managing them in explanatory research

Research Designs and Descriptive Research

Small percentage of juveniles responsible for a large percentage of offenses, including serious ones
Study replicated in Philadelphia and Racine, Wisconsin, showing similar delinquency patterns
Subject mortality is a challenge in panel design due to loss of panel members over time
Repeated questioning in panel design may lead to changes in behavior (Hawthorne effect)
Multiple group trend designs involve observing different groups at different points in time
Cross-sectional designs involve observing subgroups at a single point in time
Descriptive research aims to provide valid and reliable information about a phenomenon
Descriptive research quality depends on the appropriateness of concepts and the research design
Census and Uniform Crime Reports are examples of descriptive reports for observing changes over time
Panel design addresses the same group over time, while multiple group trend and cross-sectional designs involve different groups
Loss of subjects over time is a concern in panel design but not in multiple group trend designs
Cross-sectional designs are less time-consuming and expensive than longitudinal designs

Research Designs and Explanatory Hypotheses

Explanatory research involves searching for causal relationships among different conditions or variables using various research designs.
Pre-experimental designs are the least persuasive type of research designs and include after-only and before-after designs.
After-only design assesses the effect of an event after it has occurred, with no prior observation of the dependent variable.
After-only design is used to study the impact of unexpected events like civil disorders, terrorist attacks, and natural disasters.
After-only design provides the least persuasive basis for causal inference due to methodological hazards and lack of concomitant variation.
To strengthen inferences from after-only research, a researcher can study a similar population that has not been exposed to the presumed causal condition.
The researcher creates and imposes a tentative, hypothetical structure on the phenomenon being studied.
The researcher decides how to formulate hypotheses and can change the formulation if desired.
Two or more related, empirically testable hypotheses constitute a theory.
Logically integrated theories have the advantage of allowing new hypotheses to be derived and providing empirical support for all hypotheses in the theory.
The structure of the research design and the data collected by the researcher determine if a particular explanatory hypothesis should be accepted or rejected.
Explanatory research designs are differentiated by their forms and the strength of the arguments they permit concerning the existence of cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental Research Designs and Causal Inference

The Solomon four-group design includes two additional research groups and allows measuring variables such as the effects of pre-measurement of the dependent variable.
It does not provide stronger support for inferring a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables compared to the before-after-with-control design.
The control group helps solve problems associated with justifying causal inference, but introduces the new problem of potential initial differences between experimental and control groups.
Matching and random assignment are strategies used to ensure similarity between experimental and control groups.
Matching involves finding pairs of subjects or groups that closely resemble each other and assigning them to the experimental and control groups.
Matching controls variables that subjects are matched on, freeing the researcher to explore the effects of hypothesized independent variables without worrying about the influence of matched variables.
Random assignment involves placing individuals in the two groups according to the laws of probability to minimize systematic differences between the groups.
Both matching and random assignment help ensure similarity between experimental and control groups, but there remains some uncertainty concerning this similarity.
Longitudinal explanatory designs, such as panel and multiple group trend designs, may be used in evaluation research to assess the effects of interventions over time.
For example, a study might measure attitudes toward the police before and after a police department's public relations campaign to assess its effects in a particular urban neighborhood.
The process of random assignment involves assigning subjects to different groups according to the principles of probability sampling.
Random assignment does not guarantee the elimination of systematic differences between groups.

Quasi-Experimental Designs and Triangulation in Research

Experimental research typically happens in a controlled laboratory setting, but it is challenging to exercise controls in criminal justice research.
Quasi-experimental design is often used in criminal justice research due to ethical, practical, and methodological reasons.
Quasi-experimental design lacks random assignment to experimental and control groups and uses a comparison group instead of a control group.
In experimental design, membership in experimental and control groups is determined before the experiment begins, allowing for matching or random assignment.
Finding two similar groups in the real world for quasi-experimental design is extremely difficult, undermining support for causal inference.
Causal inference logic requires changes in the independent variable to occur before changes in the dependent variable.
Gathering data at one point in time about variables whose values have changed at some previous time can approximate the time sequence requirements of experimental design.
The choice of research design must be made explicit before the research begins, especially in quantitative explanatory research.
The quality of research results and the confidence in causal inferences depend on the structure of the design and the researcher's knowledge of its characteristics, strengths, and limitations.
Triangulation involves collecting different types of data from several sources using numerous research methods with respect to a single research question.
Observation, interviews, and document analysis are used in triangulation to enhance confidence in research conclusions.
Triangulation helps in justifying conclusions by using multiple sources and methods to corroborate findings.

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Description

Test your knowledge of operational definitions and variables in research with this quiz. Explore the concepts of validity, including face, construct, predictive, external, and internal validity, and learn about common threats to internal validity in research.