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Questions and Answers
What differentiates a thread from a process in an operating system environment?
What differentiates a thread from a process in an operating system environment?
- Processes can directly access hardware resources, but threads cannot.
- Processes share the same memory space; threads have separate memory spaces.
- Threads within the same process share resources; processes do not inherently share resources. (correct)
- Threads are heavyweight and resource-intensive, whereas processes are lightweight.
Which scheduling algorithm may lead to starvation if not implemented carefully?
Which scheduling algorithm may lead to starvation if not implemented carefully?
- First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
- Round Robin
- Priority Scheduling (correct)
- Shortest Job First (SJF)
What is the primary purpose of using semaphores in concurrent programming?
What is the primary purpose of using semaphores in concurrent programming?
- To synchronize access to shared resources (correct)
- To manage file system operations
- To optimize CPU clock speed
- To allocate memory dynamically
Consider a system using the Banker's Algorithm for deadlock avoidance. If a process requests a set of resources that may lead to an unsafe state, what action does the system take?
Consider a system using the Banker's Algorithm for deadlock avoidance. If a process requests a set of resources that may lead to an unsafe state, what action does the system take?
Which of the following is a key benefit of using virtual memory?
Which of the following is a key benefit of using virtual memory?
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Study Notes
- Cells serve as the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms.
- Tissues consist of groups of cells that share similar structures and functions.
- The tissues within the human body are categorized into four primary types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.
Epithelial Tissues
- Epithelium comprises highly cellular, tightly packed tissue with minimal extracellular matrix.
- It covers all body surfaces exposed to the external environment and lines internal body cavities.
- Epithelial tissues perform protective, secretory, absorptive, and sensory reception functions.
- Polarity is a characteristic of epithelium, featuring an apical surface (near the top) and a basal surface (near the bottom).
- Epithelium consists of closely packed cells held together by strong junctions.
- Connective tissue provides support to the epithelium.
- It exhibits a high regeneration rate.
- Epithelium covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and forms glands.
- Epithelial tissue is avascular, lacking blood vessels.
- Nerve fibers can traverse between epithelial cells.
Epithelial Tissue Classification:
- Based on structure, epithelial tissues are classified as:
- Covering and lining epithelium.
- Glandular epithelium.
- Special epithelium.
- Based on function, epithelial tissues are classified by:
- Covering and lining of surfaces.
- Absorption.
- Secretion.
- Sensation.
Classification of Covering and Lining Epithelium Based on Structure
- Number of Layers:
- Simple: Contains a single layer of cells.
- Stratified: Contains multiple layers of cells.
- Shape of Cells:
- Squamous.
- Cuboidal.
- Columnar.
- Each Epithelium tissue receives two names:
- The first name denotes the number of cell layers present.
- Simple: One layer.
- Compound (Stratified): More than one layer.
- The second name describes the cell's shape:
- Squamous.
- Cuboidal.
- Columnar.
- The first name denotes the number of cell layers present.
Simple Epithelium
- Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells.
- Every cell is in direct contact with the basement membrane.
- It separates from the underlying connective tissue.
- Simple epithelium functions in absorption and filtration.
- Three types of simple epithelium are based on cell shape:
- Simple squamous epithelium.
- Simple cuboidal epithelium.
- Simple columnar epithelium.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
- Squamous epithelial cells appear scale-like with flattened nuclei.
- This epithelium lines blood vessels (endothelium), the alveoli of the lungs, body cavities (mesothelium), and renal corpuscles of the kidney.
- It facilitates the exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gases.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
- Cuboidal cells possess central spherical nuclei.
- It covers ovaries, lines kidney tubules, and glandular ducts (salivary, thyroid, pancreas, liver).
- It functions in secretion (in glands) and reabsorption (in kidneys).
Simple Columnar Epithelium
- A single layer of tall, slender columnar cells with oval-shaped nuclei located in the basal region.
- Microvilli and cilia may be present.
- Goblet cells are often found in this layer.
- This epithelium is located in the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, and uterus.
- Functions include nutrient absorption and mucus production.
- Ciliated type found in the respiratory passage as the trachea.
Pseudostratified Epithelium
- This epithelium is simple yet appears multilayered due to varying nuclei levels.
- All cells attach to the basement membrane, but not all reach the lumen.
Compound Epithelium (Stratified Epithelia)
- Consists of two or more cell layers.
- Only the basal layer connects to the basement membrane.
- The basal layer houses stem cells vital for regeneration.
- Basal layer cells typically display a cuboidal shape.
- Stratified epithelia primarily fulfill a protective role.
- The classification of stratified epithelia is based on the shape and structure of the surface cells (superficial layer).
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
- Types include:
- Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium.
- Stratified Squamous Non-Keratinized Epithelium.
Stratified Squamous Keratinized Epithelium
- In keratinized epithelia, the top layers are dead, losing nuclei and cytoplasm.
- Possesses the tough protein keratin, rendering the epithelium waterproof.
- The basal layer transitions from cuboidal to columnar.
- The uppermost layers consist of squamous epithelium.
- Intermediate layers contain polyhedral cells with round nuclei.
- Examples include palms and soles (skin).
Stratified Squamous Non-Keratinized Epithelium
- It resembles keratinized epithelium without the keratin layer.
- Found lining the oral cavity and esophagus.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
- It includes cuboidal cells arranged in 2-3 layers.
- It lines esophageal glands, the pancreas, and sweat glands.
- Its primary function is protection.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
- Composed of two or more layers of cells.
- Superficial cells are elongated, while deeper (basal) layers are cuboidal.
- Found in parts of the pharynx.
- It is rare within the human body.
Transitional Epithelium
- A specialized type of stratified epithelium lining the majority of urinary passages (ureters, bladder).
- The surface cells appear domelike when the organ is empty.
- The surface cells stretch and flatten when the organ is full.
Glandular Epithelium
- Epithelial cells specializing in secretion form it.
- It originates from epithelium.
- During fetal development, glands arise from covering epithelium via cell proliferation and invasion of adjacent connective tissue, followed by differentiation.
- Glands are categorized based on the presence/absence of a duct system into:
- Exocrine glands.
- Endocrine glands.
- Paracrine glands.
- Mixed glands.
Exocrine Glands
- They secrete products through ducts connected to a surface like salivary glands.
Endocrine Glands
- They lack ducts.
- They secrete products into the bloodstream to reach target cells.
- The products of endocrine glands are hormones like adrenal and pituitary glands.
Paracrine Glands
- Similar to endocrine glands.
- Secretions reach target cells through diffusion or immediately subjacent connective tissue.
Mixed Glands
- Possess both exocrine and endocrine functions, such as the pancreas.
- Glands are classified by the number of secretory cells:
- Unicellular glands.
- Multicellular glands.
Unicellular Glands
- Consist of isolated glandular cells.
- Goblet cells are unicellular, mucus-secreting cells among columnar cells.
Multicellular Glands
- Composed of clusters of cells.
- These form glands of the body, such as salivary glands.
Glands Classified by Nature of Secretion:
- Mucus glands.
- Serous glands.
Mucus Glands
- Have wide lumen acini.
- Consist of tall columnar cells.
- They features pale cytoplasm (foamy appearance).
- Periphery flattened dense nuclei.
- Located in sublingual glands.
Serous Glands
- The secretion is watery fluid.
- Have narrow lumen acini.
- Pyramidal cells.
- Possess rounded basally located nuclei.
- Located in parotid glands.
Mixed Glands (Mixed Acinus)
- Serous cells manifest as crescents capping mucous cells.
- Crescents are known as Demilune's of Von Ebner or crescents of Giannuzi.
Classification by Secretion Mechanism:
- Merocrine glands.
- Apocrine glands.
- Holocrine glands.
Merocrine Glands
- Exhibit no cellular changes in secretory cells.
- Secretion occurs via exocytosis, as in salivary glands.
Apocrine Glands
- Apical portions of secretory cells are lost with the secretion, such as mammary glands.
Holocrine Glands
-
The entire cell is secreted.
-
The entire secretory cells are destroyed and come out with the secretion like sebaceous glands.
-
Classified by Arrangement of Secretory Cells and Duct Branching:
- Ducts.
- Simple glands.
Ducts
- The gland is simple if the duct is unbranched.
Simple Glands
- Include
- Simple tubular gland, e.g., colon.
- Simple tubular coiled glands, e.g., sweat gland.
- Simple acinar glands.
- Simple branched glands.
Simple Branched Glands
- Have several secretory units empty into one unbranched excretory duct.
- For example:
- Simple tubular branched glands (pyloric Stomach).
- Simple branched acinar gland (sebaceous glands).
Compound Glands
- Glands feature a branched duct system and branched secretory portions.
- If shaped like a tube, it is a mammary gland.
- If shaped like a flask, it is a Duodenum’s (Brunner's gland), alveolar or acinar in shape.
- If the structure is a combination of tube ends & a sac-like dilatation, it’s tubuloalveolar like submandibular salivary glands.
Special Epithelium Classification:
- Neuroepithelium.
- Myoepithelial cells.
- Germinal epithelium.
Neuroepithelium
- Epithelial cells are designed to receive sensory stimuli and present in taste buds of the tongue, retina of the eye, and olfactory mucosa in the nose.
Myoepithelial Cells
- Contract around the secretory or conducting portion of glands to propel secretory products, as in mammary, sweat, and salivary glands.
Germinal Epithelium
- A specialized epithelium designed for reproduction, as in testis forming spermatozoa and ovary forming ovum.
Cell Surface Specializations:
- Apical surface.
- Basal surface.
- Lateral surface.
Apical Cell Surface Specializations:
- Apical surface cells incorporate specialized structures to increase surface area or move substances, including:
- Microvilli.
- Stereocilia.
- Cilia.
- Flagella.
Microvilli
- Fingerlike cytoplasmic projections present on the apical surface.
- Closely packed, numerous structures giving a "brush border" appearance increasing surface absorptions in the small intestine.
Stereocilia
- Long, branched immotile microvilli.
- Serve as mechanoreceptors in sense organs (hair cells).
- Exhibits absorptive function in the male reproductive system (epididymis).
Cilia
- These are motile structures.
- They are longer than microvilli.
- They are visible by light microscope.
- These are found in the respiratory tract.
Flagella
- Only in spermatozoa.
- Structurally similar to cilia but longer; typically, one flagellum per cell for movement.
Basal Cell Surface Specialization
- The Basement membrane (LM) is a non-cellular layer connecting epithelium to underlying tissue.
- Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive.
- Is visible with light microscope.
- Thicker than the basal lamina.
- Formed by either two basal laminae or a basal lamina and reticular lamina.
Basal Lamina (EM)
- A sheet-like extracellular structure that consists of:
- Lamina lucida: electron lucent.
- Lamina densa: electron dense.
- Collagen IV, glycoprotein, and proteoglycan are its composition.
- Fibers of collagen VII and micro fibril bundles connect to underlying connective tissue.
- Reticular lamina connects reticular fibers of the underlying connective tissue.
Lateral Cell Surface Specialization:
- Impermeable junction: Zonula occludens (tight junction).
- Adhering junction: Zonula adherens, Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes.
- Communication junction: Gap junction.
Tight junctions (zonula occludens):
- They are at the most apical junction.
- These form bands that completely encircle the cell, sealing off the intercellular space.
- Seen with EM, the two outer leaflets of neighboring cells fuse.
- It prevents the passage of material between epithelial cells.
- For example, in the kidney and urinary bladder, urine stays within kidney tubules due to columnar epithelium cells.
Adhering Junction:
- Zonula Adherens is located directly beneath the occludens junction.
- Encircles the cell, promoting adhesion between neighboring cells.
Desmosome (Macula Adherens)
- Disk-shaped structure
- Exhibits very straight cell membranes.
- Is located along lateral membranes of epithelial cells.
- Does not allow adjacent cells to touch but holds protein filaments together.
- It presents in stratified squamous epithelium of the skin, stomach, and urinary bladder.
Hemidesmosomes
- This is located at the contact zone of the basal lamina and epithelial cells.
- Appears as half desmosomes.
- Serves a basal adhesion function.
Gap Junctions
- Adjacent cells connect through narrow protein channels; ions and nerve impulses pass through.
- Commonly present in the heart and smooth muscle.
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