Guyton and Hall Physiology Chapter 54 - The Chemical Senses—Taste and Smell
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of olfactory cilia in the olfactory membrane?

  • To amplify sound waves in the nasal cavity
  • To filter out unwanted particles from inhaled air
  • To react to odors in the air and stimulate olfactory cells (correct)
  • To provide structural support to the olfactory membrane

    • How does the sense of smell in humans compare to that of many other mammals?

  • It is better developed than in most mammals
  • It is poorly developed compared to many mammals (correct)
  • It is completely absent in humans
  • It has the same level of sensitivity as in most mammals

    • What is the estimated total surface area of the olfactory membrane in humans?

  • 15 square centimeters
  • 10 square centimeters
  • 5 square centimeters (correct)
  • 2 square centimeters

    • What type of cells are the olfactory cells within the olfactory epithelium?

    <p>Bipolar nerve cells derived from the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate length range of the olfactory hairs that project from the olfactory cells?

    <p>150 to 200 micrometers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain structure is primarily associated with the transmission of olfactory signals?

    <p>Olfactory bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain developed around the primitive sense of smell?

    <p>Limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is responsible for olfactory function?

    <p>Cranial nerve I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the medial olfactory area?

    <p>Modulating emotional responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the olfactory bulb located?

    <p>Over the cribriform plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the olfactory tract?

    <p>Conveying olfactory signals to the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the septal nuclei contribute to the sense of smell?

    <p>They transmit olfactory signals to the hypothalamus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant evolutionary aspect of the olfactory system?

    <p>It evolved into systems controlling emotions and basic behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is primarily activated by olfactory signals?

    <p>Medial olfactory area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure acts as an anterior outgrowth of brain tissue responsible for smell?

    <p>Olfactory bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the hippocampus play in relation to dietary preferences?

    <p>It is crucial for learning to like or dislike foods based on experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area receives sensory signals in the cerebral cortex without going through the thalamus?

    <p>Paleocortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process leads to an aversion to certain foods due to nausea?

    <p>Signal pathways from the lateral olfactory area into the limbic system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the newer olfactory pathway?

    <p>It passes through the thalamus to the dorsomedial thalamic nucleus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the lateral olfactory area influence the limbic system?

    <p>By establishing pathways that shape emotional responses to different odors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the paleocortex mentioned in the content?

    <p>To handle sensory signals directly from the olfactory area.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What implication does the connection between olfactory signals and the limbic system have on human behavior?

    <p>They can trigger complex emotional reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines a person's threshold for detecting smells?

    <p>The olfactory receptor density in the nasal cavity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cribriform plate?

    <p>To facilitate the passage of nerves from the olfactory membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain, when removed, minimally affects basic olfactory responses like lip licking?

    <p>Lateral olfactory areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to olfactory conditioned reflexes when the lateral olfactory areas are removed?

    <p>They are abolished entirely</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells in the olfactory bulb receive inhibitory signals from granule cells?

    <p>Mitral and tufted cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do centrifugal nerve fibers play in the olfactory system?

    <p>They send signals from the brain to the olfactory tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is primarily associated with the lateral olfactory area?

    <p>Prepyriform and pyriform cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of olfactory processing, what is the likely effect of granule cells on mitral and tufted cells?

    <p>They suppress activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the olfactory system impact feeding behavior?

    <p>Via basic emotional drives associated with smell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reflexes are most affected by the removal of the lateral olfactory area?

    <p>Olfactory conditioned reflexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the relationships between olfactory cells and the olfactory bulb as depicted in the content?

    <p>They indicate a direct sensory pathway from the nose to the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the substance mixed with natural gas?

    <p>To provide a detectable odor for gas leaks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what concentration range does maximum intensity of smell occur for most odorants?

    <p>10 to 50 times above the threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the medial olfactory area?

    <p>It is the oldest olfactory system pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the olfactory pathways enter the brain?

    <p>At the anterior junction of the mesencephalon and cerebrum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might explain the different intensity discrimination ranges between olfactory and other sensory systems?

    <p>Smell emphasizes presence or absence of odors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two pathways the olfactory tract divides into?

    <p>Medial and lateral olfactory areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant characteristic of the lateral olfactory area?

    <p>It represents a newer, more advanced olfactory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the olfactory sensory systems compared to other sensory systems?

    <p>Olfactory systems have a narrower range of intensity discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sensory system has a higher range of intensity discrimination than olfactory pathways?

    <p>Auditory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential function of the medial olfactory area in response to odors?

    <p>Detection of emotional responses to smells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily elicits the salty taste sensation?

    <p>Sodium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances is NOT typically associated with a sweet taste?

    <p>Alkaline earth metals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the quality of salty taste vary?

    <p>It can change based on the specific salt used.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does smell play in the recognition of other animals?

    <p>It allows recognition of the proximity of other animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the relationship between taste and smell?

    <p>The sense of smell enhances the perception of taste.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance has the highest taste index for sweetness according to the taste indices?

    <p>Saccharin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sour substances has the lowest taste index?

    <p>Potassium H tartrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the taste index of quinine, classified as a bitter substance?

    <p>11</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance is listed as having a taste index value of 0.02?

    <p>Morphine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following substances is NOT categorized as a salty substance?

    <p>Chloroacetic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does aging affect taste bud sensitivity?

    <p>Degeneration of taste buds leading to decreased sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the receptor potential in taste cells?

    <p>The change in electrical potential in response to taste stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the specificity of taste buds is true?

    <p>Most taste buds respond predominantly to one primary taste at low concentrations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the receptor potential in taste receptor cells?

    <p>Binding of taste chemicals to specific proteins on the cell surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does high concentration of taste substances have on taste buds?

    <p>They can be excited by multiple primary taste stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily contributes to the depolarization of taste cells?

    <p>Entry of positively charged sodium or hydrogen ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerves are involved in the taste transmission process?

    <p>Chorda tympani (VII) and glossopharyngeal (IX)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of taste bud degeneration in older adults?

    <p>Decreased sensitivity to taste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics applies to the membrane of taste cells?

    <p>It is negatively charged on the inside at rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ion's entry is crucial for inducing receptor potential in taste cells?

    <p>Sodium or hydrogen ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The bitter taste can be caused by long-chain organic substances that contain nitrogen and alkaloids.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All types of bitter taste sensations are caused by the same chemical agents.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The presence of certain substances in food can enhance the sweetness detected by taste receptors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A high intensity of bitter taste typically leads to the rejection of food by a person or animal.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saccharin is an example of a substance that can taste sweet initially but has a bitter aftertaste.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Adults typically have 3000 to 10,000 taste buds, whereas children have significantly fewer.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most taste buds respond to multiple primary taste stimuli at low concentrations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beyond the age of 45, many taste buds begin to degenerate, leading to an increase in taste sensitivity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The receptor potential for taste is generated when positively charged ions enter the taste cell, leading to depolarization.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    High concentrations of taste substances stimulate only one specific type of taste bud.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    T1R3 serves as a co-receptor for both sweet and umami tastes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bitter taste is sensed by a single type of G-protein coupled receptor family.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Each bitter-sensing taste receptor cell expresses multiple T1Rs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sour taste perception is linked to the detection of hydrogen ions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The KIR2.1 channel is believed to mediate responses in taste receptor cells for bitter taste.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Taste receptor cells have a single-type ion channel that opens when detecting sour taste.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An individual taste receptor can recognize more than one type of bitter compound.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The generation of nerve impulses by taste buds occurs immediately upon first application of a taste stimulus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The precise mechanism of how sour taste is sensed is fully understood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Taste hairs (microvilli) are involved in the sensing of sweet and umami tastes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following taste sensations with their descriptions:

    <p>Sour = Caused by hydrogen ion concentration Salty = Primarily stimulated by sodium chloride Sweet = Primarily stimulated by sucrose Bitter = Caused by quinine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following taste cells with their lifespan:

    <p>Taste cells = Approximately 10 days average lifespan Young taste cells = Continually replaced by mitotic division Mature taste cells = Located towards the center of the bud Eliminated taste cells = Some survive over 3 weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following food sources to their primary taste sensation:

    <p>Meat extracts = Umami Aging cheese = Umami Hydrochloric acid = Sour Sucrose = Sweet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following taste sensations with their molar thresholds:

    <p>Sour = 0.0009 M Salty = 0.01 M Sweet = 0.01 M Bitter = 0.000008 M</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following tastes with their tasting characteristics:

    <p>Umami = Pleasant taste sensation Sour = Intensely acidic Bitter = Intensely bitter taste Salty = Common table salt taste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following primary sensations of smell with their corresponding descriptors:

    <p>Camphoraceous = Strong, medicinal scent Musky = Earthy and animalistic aroma Floral = Sweet and fragrant Pepperminty = Fresh and minty scent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the stages of olfactory signal processing with their descriptions:

    <p>Activation = Onset of olfactory stimulus G-protein complex activation = Initiates signal transduction cAMP formation = Amplifies the signal Sodium ion channel opening = Leads to nerve impulse generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the factors that affect olfactory stimulation with their requirements:

    <p>Volatile substances = Must be sniffed into the nasal cavity Concentration of odorant = Must be at significant levels Feedback inhibition = Suppresses signal relay Sodium channels = Open in response to cAMP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the process in the olfactory system with its effects:

    <p>Cascading effect = Opens large numbers of sodium channels Sensitivity of olfactory neurons = Responds to minute concentrations of odorant Activation of adenylyl cyclase = Produces many cAMP molecules Feedback inhibition = Suppresses strong stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the chemical mechanisms in the olfactory system with their actions:

    <p>Odorant substance = Activates receptor proteins G-protein complex = Transmits the signal inside the cell cAMP = Prepares channels for sodium influx Sodium ion channels = Triggers olfactory nerve response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Olfactory System

    • Lateral Olfactory Area
      • The lateral olfactory area connects to the hippocampus, which is responsible for learning and memory.
      • This area appears to play a significant role in developing preferences and aversions to foods based on prior experiences.
      • It receives signals from the lateral olfactory area that contribute to the development of strong aversions to foods associated with nausea or vomiting.
      • This area also has direct connections to the paleocortex which is part of the cerebral cortex.
      • It is the only area of the cerebral cortex where sensory signals bypass the thalamus before reaching the cortex.
    • Newer Olfactory Pathway
      • This newer pathway also helps to transmit smell information.
      • The signal travels from the thalamus to the dorsomedial thalamic nucleus and then to the lateroposterior quadrant of the orbitofrontal cortex.
    • Concentration
      • The olfactory system has a very low threshold for detecting odors making it highly sensitive.
    • Odor Intensity
      • The range of odor intensity that can be perceived is far smaller than other sensory systems like vision or hearing.
      • The olfactory system primarily detects the presence or absence of odors, rather than precisely quantifying their intensity.

    ### Olfactory Transmission

    • Olfactory Nerve Fibers
      • Olfactory nerve fibers originate from the olfactory bulb and transmit information to the brain.
      • These fibers form cranial nerve I, also known as the olfactory tract.
    • Olfactory Bulb
      • The olfactory bulb is an anterior outgrowth of brain tissue from the base of the brain.
      • It sits atop the cribriform plate, separating the brain cavity from the nasal cavity.
      • The cribriform plate contains small perforations through which olfactory nerve fibers pass from the olfactory membrane into the bulb contained within the cranial cavity.
      • The olfactory bulb receives signals from the olfactory cells through the olfactory nerve fibers.

    Primitive Olfactory System

    • Medial Olfactory Area
      • It is a primitive olfactory system located in the midbasal portions of the brain, anterior to the hypothalamus.
      • It includes the septal nuclei which are located in the midline of the brain and project to the hypothalamus and other primitive parts of the limbic system.
      • This area plays a crucial role in regulating basic behaviors such as feeding and responding to smells.
    • Influence of Damage
      • Damage to the lateral olfactory area does not significantly affect basic olfactory responses such as licking and salivation caused by food scents or basic emotional drives.
      • However, it disrupts more complex olfactory conditioned reflexes.
      • The removal of the lateral olfactory area leaves intact the more basic olfactory responses regulated by the medial olfactory system.

    Less Old Olfactory System

    • Lateral Olfactory Area
      • This system is less primitive than the medial olfactory area.
      • It is made up of the prepyriform and pyriform cortex, and includes the cortical portion of the amygdala.
      • It is more complex than the medial olfactory area, reflecting a higher level of olfactory processing.

    Olfactory Membrane

    • Cells in the Olfactory Membrane
      • The olfactory membrane is located in the superior portion of the nasal cavity.
      • It contains olfactory cells, which are bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS.
      • These cells have 4 to 25 olfactory cilia or hairs that project into the mucous layer lining the nasal cavity.
    • Olfactory Cells
      • These cells are responsible for detecting odors.
      • They are bipolar nerve cells derived from the central nervous system.
      • They are interspersed among sustenticular cells.
      • The olfactory cells contain cilia which detect odor molecules in the air.
    • Function of Olfactory Cilia
      • These cilia are microscopic projections extending from the olfactory cells.
      • They are covered in a mucus layer.
      • They are highly sensitive and detect odor molecules in the air.
      • They transmit these odors to the olfactory cells, triggering the sensation of smell.

    Central Nervous System Regulation of Smell

    • Control of the Olfactory Bulb
      • The olfactory bulb is regulated by the central nervous system through centrifugal control.
      • Nerve fibers from the brain travel centrifugally to the olfactory bulb.
      • These fibers connect to granule cells within the bulb.
      • Granule cells release inhibitory signals to the mitral and tufted cells, helping to refine odor discrimination.
      • This control is necessary for sharpening a person’s ability to distinguish between different odors.

    Taste

    • Taste buds are mainly responsible for the sense of taste, but smell also contributes strongly
    • There are 3,000 to 10,000 taste buds in adults, with a higher amount in children
    • Taste bud sensitivity decreases with age as many degenerate after the age of 45
    • Taste buds are specific to one of the five primary tastes at low concentrations: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami
    • Taste buds can detect multiple tastes at higher concentrations
    • The salty taste is caused by ionized salts, mainly by sodium ions
    • Sweet taste is not caused by any single chemical, but rather a range of substances like: sugars, glycols, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amides, esters, amino acids, small proteins, sulfonic acids, halogenated acids, and inorganic salts
    • The mechanism of stimulation starts with activation of the taste cells, which causes a depolarization, leading to the receptor potential of taste
    • The receptor potential is initiated by the binding of the taste chemical to a protein receptor molecule on the taste receptor cell, opening ion channels, allowing positively charged sodium or hydrogen ions to enter and depolarize the cell
    • Taste sensations adapt quickly, usually within a minute, occurring mostly in the central nervous system, rather than at the taste bud receptors

    Taste Preference and Diet Control

    • Taste preference plays an important role in diet selection, allowing animals to choose foods that are desirable and nutritious
    • Taste preferences can change based on the body's needs for specific substances
    • The septal nuclei, located in the midline of the brain, are involved in taste preference and dietary control
    • The septal nuclei feed into the hypothalamus and other areas of the limbic system, which are responsible for basic behavior

    Smell

    • The olfactory system is one of the earliest developed brain structures in primitive animals
    • Olfactory signals are transmitted through the olfactory bulb, which is an outgrowth of brain tissue
    • Olfactory nerve fibers travel back from the bulb as cranial nerve I, or the olfactory tract
    • The olfactory bulb lies over the cribriform plate, separating the brain cavity from the nasal cavity
    • The medial olfactory area is important for basic behavior and connects to the hypothalamus and other areas of the limbic system

    Taste

    • The five primary taste sensations are: sour, salty, sweet, bitter, and umami.
    • Taste buds are located on the tongue and palate.
    • Each taste bud is usually most sensitive to one of the five primary taste stimuli.
    • Taste receptor cells are located within taste buds and are depolarized by taste stimuli.
    • The receptor potential is triggered by the binding of taste chemicals to protein receptor molecules on the surface of taste receptor cells, which opens ion channels.
    • The intensity of the taste sensation is proportional to the concentration of the stimulating substance.

    Smell

    • Smell is detected by olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity.
    • Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons with cilia that project into the nasal cavity.
    • Odorant molecules bind to receptor proteins on the cilia of olfactory receptor cells, triggering a signal transduction cascade that leads to the generation of nerve impulses.
    • Each olfactory receptor cell expresses only one type of receptor protein, which binds to a specific odorant or a small group of related odorants.
    • The olfactory nerve is composed of axons from olfactory receptor cells and carries signals to the olfactory bulb.
    • The olfactory bulb is located in the brain and processes olfactory information.
    • The olfactory bulb projects to the olfactory cortex, which is responsible for conscious perception of smell.
    • The olfactory bulb also projects to the amygdala and hippocampus, which are involved in emotional responses and memory associated with smell.
    • The medial olfactory area is a primitive olfactory system located in the midbasal portions of the brain.
    • The lateral olfactory area is a newer olfactory system that projects to the prefrontal cortex and other brain areas.
    • The medial olfactory area is involved in basic behavioral responses to odors, while the lateral olfactory area is involved in conscious perception and complex olfactory processing.

    Sour Taste

    • Caused by the concentration of hydrogen ions
    • Sour taste intensity increases proportionally to the logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration

    Umami Taste

    • Japanese for "delicious"
    • Perceived as a pleasant taste qualitatively different from sour, salty, sweet, or bitter
    • Dominant flavor in food containing L-glutamate
    • Thought to promote ingestion of proteins

    Taste Thresholds

    • Sour taste: 0.0009 M hydrochloric acid
    • Salty taste: 0.01 M sodium chloride
    • Sweet taste: 0.01 M sucrose
    • Bitter taste: 0.000008 M quinine

    Smell: The Olfactory System

    • Mechanism: Odorant molecules bind to olfactory receptors, activating a G-protein complex
    • The G-protein activates adenylyl cyclase, producing cAMP
    • cAMP opens sodium channels, causing depolarization
    • This triggers action potentials in olfactory nerve fibers
    • Physical factors influencing smell:
      • Odorant must be volatile
      • Odorant must be slightly water-soluble
      • Odorant must be slightly lipid-soluble

    Olfactory Cell Membrane Potentials

    • Unstimulated olfactory cells have a membrane potential of about -55 millivolts
    • Unstimulated cells generate action potentials at a slow rate
    • Odorants cause depolarization, decreasing the membrane potential to -30 millivolts or less
    • Depolarization triggers rapid action potential firing

    Primary Sensations of Smell

    • At least 100 primary sensations of smell
    • Some studies suggest there may be as many as 1000 different types of odorant receptors
    • Odor blindness, the inability to smell a specific substance, has been identified for over 50 different substances

    Affective Nature of Smell

    • Smell, more than taste, has the affective quality of pleasantness or unpleasantness
    • Can trigger strong emotional responses
    • Plays a role in food selection

    Olfactory System Structure

    • Olfactory neurons: Located in the olfactory epithelium
    • Olfactory bulb: Contains glomeruli, where olfactory neurons synapse with mitral and tufted cells
    • Mitral and tufted cells: Send axons to higher brain structures

    Neural Connections

    • Olfactory bulb projects to the brain, including:
      • Lateral olfactory area (prepyriform and pyriform cortex, amygdaloid nuclei)
      • Medial olfactory area (hippocampus, temporal cortex)
      • Orbitofrontal cortex

    Centrifugal Control of Olfactory Bulb

    • Nerve fibers from the brain project to the olfactory bulb, terminating on granule cells
    • Granule cells send inhibitory signals to mitral and tufted cells
    • This feedback mechanism may sharpen odor discrimination

    The Less Old Olfactory System - The Lateral Olfactory Area

    • Involved in complex olfactory functions like conditioned reflexes
    • Removal of this area impairs these complex functions but doesn't affect basic olfactory responses

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    Guyton and Hall Physiology Chapter 54 - The Chemical Senses—Taste and Smell PDF

    Description

    Test your knowledge on the olfactory system, including the lateral olfactory area and the newer olfactory pathway. Understand how these regions contribute to our sense of smell and impacts on memory and food preferences. Dive into the unique characteristics of sensory signal processing in this system.

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