Ohm Chapter 5: Perception

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Questions and Answers

What does low consistency in behavior typically indicate?

The behavior is unchangeable.

External influences are at play. (correct)

A strong internal attribution.

The person has a stable personality.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

Overestimating external influences on behavior.

Underestimating external influences while overestimating internal factors. (correct)

Attributing all behavior to situational factors only.

Balancing both internal and external factors in evaluations.

Which bias involves attributing personal successes to internal factors?

Horns effect.

Self-serving bias. (correct)

Selective perception.

Fundamental attribution error.

What does the halo effect influence?

Overall views based on a positive trait. Signup and view all the answers

Stereotyping involves making judgments based on what factor?

The group the person belongs to. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key assumption of the rational decision-making model?

All options are identified in an unbiased way. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the limitations of human cognition in decision-making?

Bounded rationality. Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct first step in the rational decision-making model?

Define the problem. Signup and view all the answers

What role do personal motives play in the perception process?

They influence how one perceives situations based on personal desires or needs. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most likely to influence perception in a work setting?

The specific time an event occurs. Signup and view all the answers

How does high distinctiveness in behavior suggest attribution?

It indicates an external attribution due to unique circumstances. Signup and view all the answers

What does low consensus in behavior suggest about attribution?

The behavior is peculiar to the individual, indicating internal attribution. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors is NOT part of the perceiver's influence on perception?

Time Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can attract more attention in the perception process?

Novel or unusual stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What does high consistency in behavior suggest about the attribution process?

The behavior is stable over time in similar situations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples demonstrates proximity as a factor in perception?

Identifying a friend in a crowd of people standing close together. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bounded rationality in decision making?

Sacrificing for a satisfactory solution Signup and view all the answers

Which bias describes the tendency to only look for information that supports previous choices and to ignore contradictory information?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

How does overconfidence bias typically affect individuals in terms of their decision making?

It causes them to underestimate potential risks. Signup and view all the answers

What does the anchoring bias refer to in decision making?

Fixating on initial information and failing to adjust for new data Signup and view all the answers

Which bias is characterized by maintaining a decision despite clear evidence of its incorrectness?

Escalation of commitment Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the availability bias?

Making decisions based on easily accessible information Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors can influence individual decision making?

Personality traits Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of randomness error in decision making?

Believing random events can be predicted accurately Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between emotions and moods in terms of duration?

Moods last longer than emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a negative emotion?

Fear Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is commonly believed to influence mood, despite there being no actual effect?

Weather Signup and view all the answers

In the context of emotional labor, what is surface acting?

Pretending to feel emotions one does not have. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following emotions is NOT classified as one of the six universal emotions?

Joy Signup and view all the answers

What do older individuals tend to focus on regarding emotions compared to younger adults?

Positive stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following activities is most likely to improve mood, particularly in individuals experiencing depression?

Physical exercise Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the intensity with which individuals experience their emotions?

Affect Intensity Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Perception

Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory impressions to derive meaning from the environment.

Factors Affecting Perception

Factors in the Perceiver:
- Attitudes: Personal beliefs influence how individuals perceive events.
- Motives: Personal needs shape situational interpretation.
- Interests: Focusing on specific interests impacts perception.
- Experience: Past experiences inform the interpretation of new information.
- Expectations: Preconceived notions affect how events are perceived.
Factors in the Situation:
- Time: Timing of an event can alter perception.
- Work Setting: The context of the workplace shapes behavior interpretation.
- Social Setting: Surrounding social context influences perceptions.
Factors in the Target:
- Novelty: Unusual stimuli capture attention.
- Motion: Moving objects are more noticeable.
- Sounds: Auditory stimuli influence perception.
- Size: Larger objects tend to attract notice.
- Background: The environment surrounding a target affects interpretation.
- Proximity: Nearby objects are perceived in relation to each other.
- Similarity: Similar items are grouped and perceived as related.

Attribution Theory

Observers determine the cause of behavior as either internal (person-related) or external (situation-related).
Distinctiveness:
- High distinctiveness indicates unusual behavior across contexts (suggests external attribution).
- Low distinctiveness indicates consistent behavior across situations (suggests internal attribution).
Consensus:
- High consensus reflects similar behaviors among individuals in the same situation (external attribution).
- Low consensus indicates unique behaviors (internal attribution).
Consistency:
- High consistency suggests that behavior is characteristic of the individual (internal attribution).
- Low consistency may suggest influence from situational factors (external attribution).

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate external influences on behavior and overestimate internal factors.

Self-Serving Bias

Individuals attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming failures on external circumstances.

Shortcuts in Judging Others

Selective Perception: Filtering perceptions based on personal interests and background.
Halo Effect: Making positive assumptions based on a single favorable trait.
Horns Effect: Developing a negative impression due to one unfavorable characteristic.
Contrast Effect: Evaluating individuals based on recent comparisons to others in similar traits.
Stereotyping: Judging individuals based on group affiliations.

Application of Shortcuts in Organizations

Influences occur in contexts such as employment interviews, performance expectations, and evaluations.

Decision-Making Models

Rational Decision-Making Model: A structured approach aiming for optimal outcomes through defined steps (define problem, identify criteria, etc.).
- Assumes decision-makers have complete information and unbiased identification of all options.

Limitations of Rational Model and Bounded Rationality

Bounded rationality arises from:
- Limited information processing capacity.
- Situations lacking optimal solutions lead to satisfactory rather than optimal decisions.
- Complexity necessitates reducing problems to manageable interpretations.

Bounded Rationality Process

Identify problems and search for criteria and alternatives.
Likely limited thoroughness in criteria; favoring visible and familiar solutions.
Focus on alternatives that closely align with the current state until a suitable option emerges.

Biases and Errors in Decision-Making

Overconfidence Bias: Weak performers tend to overestimate their abilities; overly optimistic entrepreneurs often face lesser success.
Anchoring Bias: Reliance on initial information without adequately adjusting for new data.
Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while dismissing contradictory evidence.
Availability Bias: Judgments are based on information that is easily accessible.
Escalation of Commitment: Continuing a poor decision due to personal responsibility for the outcome.
Randomness Error: Misguided belief in predicting random outcomes can impair decision-making.
Hindsight Bias: Believing post-outcome that an event was predictable.

Individual Factors Affecting Decision-Making

Personality, gender, mental ability, and cultural differences influence decision-making processes.

Organizational Factors Affecting Decision-Making

Various organizational elements impact how decisions are made and perceived.

Affect

Affect encompasses a wide range of feelings, manifested through emotions and moods.

Emotions

Cause: Triggered by specific events.
Duration: Brief, lasting seconds to minutes.
Nature: Specific and numerous, including anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.
Expression: Associated with distinct facial expressions.
Orientation: Action-oriented.

Moods

Cause: General and often unclear triggers.
Duration: Longer lasting, from hours to days.
Nature: More general; categorized into positive affect and negative affect.
Expression: Lacks distinct facial expressions.
Orientation: Predominantly cognitive.

Six Universal Emotions

Anger
Fear
Sadness
Happiness
Disgust
Surprise

Positive and Negative Emotions

Positive Emotions: Associated with feelings of being well-rested, treated with respect, enjoyment, smiling, laughing, and engaging in interesting activities.
Negative Emotions: Include anger, stress, sadness, physical pain, and worry.

Sources of Emotions and Moods

Personality: Emotions and moods have a trait component; affect intensity varies among individuals.
Time of Day: Mood tends to improve during the midpoint of the day.
Day of the Week: Happiness generally increases towards the week’s end.
Weather: Perception of weather affecting mood (illusory correlation); no real impact observed.
Stress: Low-level, constant stress can adversely affect mood.
Social Activities: Interactions, dining, and informal activities can enhance positive mood.
Sleep: Poor sleep quality correlates with increased negative emotions.
Exercise: Can improve mood, particularly in depressed individuals.
Age: Older adults tend to focus more on positive stimuli compared to younger ones.
Sex Differences:
- Women display more emotional expressiveness.
- Women experience emotions more intensely and have longer-lasting moods.
- Women express emotions more frequently than men.

Emotional Labor

Definition: Requirement for employees to portray emotions aligned with organizational expectations in workplace interactions.
Felt Emotions: Actual emotions an individual experiences.
Displayed Emotions: Emotions deemed appropriate by organizational standards.
Types of Emotional Labor:
- Surface Acting: Involves suppressing true feelings and adopting a facade.

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Description

This quiz explores the concept of perception as outlined in Chapter 5 of Ohm. It discusses how individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions, along with various factors that affect perception, such as attitudes, motives, interests, and experiences. Test your understanding of how these elements shape our view of the environment.