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Questions and Answers
What does low consistency in behavior typically indicate?
What is the fundamental attribution error?
Which bias involves attributing personal successes to internal factors?
What does the halo effect influence?
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Stereotyping involves making judgments based on what factor?
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What is a key assumption of the rational decision-making model?
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Which term describes the limitations of human cognition in decision-making?
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What is the correct first step in the rational decision-making model?
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What role do personal motives play in the perception process?
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Which factor is most likely to influence perception in a work setting?
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How does high distinctiveness in behavior suggest attribution?
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What does low consensus in behavior suggest about attribution?
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Which of the following factors is NOT part of the perceiver's influence on perception?
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Which factor can attract more attention in the perception process?
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What does high consistency in behavior suggest about the attribution process?
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Which of the following examples demonstrates proximity as a factor in perception?
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What is the primary characteristic of bounded rationality in decision making?
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Which bias describes the tendency to only look for information that supports previous choices and to ignore contradictory information?
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How does overconfidence bias typically affect individuals in terms of their decision making?
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What does the anchoring bias refer to in decision making?
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Which bias is characterized by maintaining a decision despite clear evidence of its incorrectness?
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What best describes the availability bias?
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Which of the following factors can influence individual decision making?
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What is the essence of randomness error in decision making?
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What is the primary difference between emotions and moods in terms of duration?
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Which of the following is considered a negative emotion?
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Which factor is commonly believed to influence mood, despite there being no actual effect?
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In the context of emotional labor, what is surface acting?
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Which of the following emotions is NOT classified as one of the six universal emotions?
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What do older individuals tend to focus on regarding emotions compared to younger adults?
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Which of the following activities is most likely to improve mood, particularly in individuals experiencing depression?
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What term describes the intensity with which individuals experience their emotions?
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Study Notes
Perception
- Perception involves organizing and interpreting sensory impressions to derive meaning from the environment.
Factors Affecting Perception
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Factors in the Perceiver:
- Attitudes: Personal beliefs influence how individuals perceive events.
- Motives: Personal needs shape situational interpretation.
- Interests: Focusing on specific interests impacts perception.
- Experience: Past experiences inform the interpretation of new information.
- Expectations: Preconceived notions affect how events are perceived.
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Factors in the Situation:
- Time: Timing of an event can alter perception.
- Work Setting: The context of the workplace shapes behavior interpretation.
- Social Setting: Surrounding social context influences perceptions.
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Factors in the Target:
- Novelty: Unusual stimuli capture attention.
- Motion: Moving objects are more noticeable.
- Sounds: Auditory stimuli influence perception.
- Size: Larger objects tend to attract notice.
- Background: The environment surrounding a target affects interpretation.
- Proximity: Nearby objects are perceived in relation to each other.
- Similarity: Similar items are grouped and perceived as related.
Attribution Theory
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Observers determine the cause of behavior as either internal (person-related) or external (situation-related).
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Distinctiveness:
- High distinctiveness indicates unusual behavior across contexts (suggests external attribution).
- Low distinctiveness indicates consistent behavior across situations (suggests internal attribution).
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Consensus:
- High consensus reflects similar behaviors among individuals in the same situation (external attribution).
- Low consensus indicates unique behaviors (internal attribution).
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Consistency:
- High consistency suggests that behavior is characteristic of the individual (internal attribution).
- Low consistency may suggest influence from situational factors (external attribution).
Fundamental Attribution Error
- The tendency to underestimate external influences on behavior and overestimate internal factors.
Self-Serving Bias
- Individuals attribute their successes to internal factors while blaming failures on external circumstances.
Shortcuts in Judging Others
- Selective Perception: Filtering perceptions based on personal interests and background.
- Halo Effect: Making positive assumptions based on a single favorable trait.
- Horns Effect: Developing a negative impression due to one unfavorable characteristic.
- Contrast Effect: Evaluating individuals based on recent comparisons to others in similar traits.
- Stereotyping: Judging individuals based on group affiliations.
Application of Shortcuts in Organizations
- Influences occur in contexts such as employment interviews, performance expectations, and evaluations.
Decision-Making Models
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Rational Decision-Making Model: A structured approach aiming for optimal outcomes through defined steps (define problem, identify criteria, etc.).
- Assumes decision-makers have complete information and unbiased identification of all options.
Limitations of Rational Model and Bounded Rationality
- Bounded rationality arises from:
- Limited information processing capacity.
- Situations lacking optimal solutions lead to satisfactory rather than optimal decisions.
- Complexity necessitates reducing problems to manageable interpretations.
Bounded Rationality Process
- Identify problems and search for criteria and alternatives.
- Likely limited thoroughness in criteria; favoring visible and familiar solutions.
- Focus on alternatives that closely align with the current state until a suitable option emerges.
Biases and Errors in Decision-Making
- Overconfidence Bias: Weak performers tend to overestimate their abilities; overly optimistic entrepreneurs often face lesser success.
- Anchoring Bias: Reliance on initial information without adequately adjusting for new data.
- Confirmation Bias: Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while dismissing contradictory evidence.
- Availability Bias: Judgments are based on information that is easily accessible.
- Escalation of Commitment: Continuing a poor decision due to personal responsibility for the outcome.
- Randomness Error: Misguided belief in predicting random outcomes can impair decision-making.
- Hindsight Bias: Believing post-outcome that an event was predictable.
Individual Factors Affecting Decision-Making
- Personality, gender, mental ability, and cultural differences influence decision-making processes.
Organizational Factors Affecting Decision-Making
- Various organizational elements impact how decisions are made and perceived.
Affect
- Affect encompasses a wide range of feelings, manifested through emotions and moods.
Emotions
- Cause: Triggered by specific events.
- Duration: Brief, lasting seconds to minutes.
- Nature: Specific and numerous, including anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, and surprise.
- Expression: Associated with distinct facial expressions.
- Orientation: Action-oriented.
Moods
- Cause: General and often unclear triggers.
- Duration: Longer lasting, from hours to days.
- Nature: More general; categorized into positive affect and negative affect.
- Expression: Lacks distinct facial expressions.
- Orientation: Predominantly cognitive.
Six Universal Emotions
- Anger
- Fear
- Sadness
- Happiness
- Disgust
- Surprise
Positive and Negative Emotions
- Positive Emotions: Associated with feelings of being well-rested, treated with respect, enjoyment, smiling, laughing, and engaging in interesting activities.
- Negative Emotions: Include anger, stress, sadness, physical pain, and worry.
Sources of Emotions and Moods
- Personality: Emotions and moods have a trait component; affect intensity varies among individuals.
- Time of Day: Mood tends to improve during the midpoint of the day.
- Day of the Week: Happiness generally increases towards the week’s end.
- Weather: Perception of weather affecting mood (illusory correlation); no real impact observed.
- Stress: Low-level, constant stress can adversely affect mood.
- Social Activities: Interactions, dining, and informal activities can enhance positive mood.
- Sleep: Poor sleep quality correlates with increased negative emotions.
- Exercise: Can improve mood, particularly in depressed individuals.
- Age: Older adults tend to focus more on positive stimuli compared to younger ones.
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Sex Differences:
- Women display more emotional expressiveness.
- Women experience emotions more intensely and have longer-lasting moods.
- Women express emotions more frequently than men.
Emotional Labor
- Definition: Requirement for employees to portray emotions aligned with organizational expectations in workplace interactions.
- Felt Emotions: Actual emotions an individual experiences.
- Displayed Emotions: Emotions deemed appropriate by organizational standards.
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Types of Emotional Labor:
- Surface Acting: Involves suppressing true feelings and adopting a facade.
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Description
This quiz explores the concept of perception as outlined in Chapter 5 of Ohm. It discusses how individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions, along with various factors that affect perception, such as attitudes, motives, interests, and experiences. Test your understanding of how these elements shape our view of the environment.
