Observational Research Methods

Observation and Description

• Observational research differs from experimental research
• Observational studies test hypotheses
• Observational studies provide an overview of a problem area
• Observational studies answer further questions raised by original findings
• Observational studies highlight how data replaces opinion

How Observational Research Differs

• Experimental research involves the investigator intervening to make something happen, manipulating a variable, and observing the effect.
• Observational research involves the investigator describing some aspect of nature as he finds it, observing and describing it carefully without influencing events.

Case Studies

• Case studies involve in-depth study of a few cases, sometimes a single case, to understand an event.
• Paul Broca's study of "Tan" in 1861: Tan could only say the word "Tan" and suffered from expressive aphasia- inability to produce speech.
• Broca discovered that damage to a specific area (Broca's area) of the left frontal lobe was linked to speech production issues.
• Further studies showed the patients suffering from Broca's aphasia can often understand speech, can write, and have unimpaired intelligence.
• Broca concluded that such patients suffer from the failure of a specialized memory mechanism and cannot remember how to form words with their speech apparatus.
• Broca's work suggested assigning specific functions to different areas of the brain
• Broca's findings contributed to the idea of localized brain function.
• Case studies can be useful in determining what can happen and may suggest new ideas or new lines of study.
• Case studies are limited because they tell us what can happen, but nothing about what typically does happen.
• Case studies are especially susceptible to error due to close, repeated contact between the observer-scientist and his subject matter. Can results in observer bias.
• Observer effects where experimenters see what they expect to see and/or influence subjects to behave in a certain way are sources of error within case studies.

Surveys and Interviews

• Surveys and Interviews focus on large groups of cases and consider the sample a part of a larger population.
• Surveys and Interviews are familiar in political polling and market research.
• The sampling of cases can be tricky, and the phrasing of survey questions is an art.
• Surveys can also be used to explore psychological interest like cohabitation and divorce.
• Data shows that couples who cohabited before marriage were more likely to divorce than those who did not.
• Correlation does not imply causality.

Bennington Study

• Bennington College known for social awareness and political liberalism, unlike its conservative affluent students.
• Theodore Newcomb headed a research project concerned with attitude change.
• Students tended to move toward more liberal attitudes on political and social issues and opinions on various social issues of the day. They were operationalized using pencil-paper attitude scaled.
• Bennington alumnae remained more liberal years later, compared to women roughly comparable in age, income, and geographical location.
• Bennington alumnae in the 1960s expressed more liberal attitudes and values than their non-Bennington sisters and sisters-in-law.

Cultural Psychology

• Studies in the United States reveal that when explaining someone else's actions people refer to underlying personality traits.
• Studies of Hindus living in India explain behavior in terms of outside situational factors.
• Miller showed events generated by Indians to Americans who gave situational explanations for the actions and claimed how Americans prefer one kind of explanation, and Indians the other, even for the same events.

Participant Observation

• Participant observation is a method in which scientists study the behavior of a group of individuals "from the inside" and become part of the group.
• In 1950 Marian Keech claimed she was receiving messages from outer space, and that most of the world would be destroyed by a great flood in December but that she and her followers would be rescued by a flying saucer.
• They quit their jobs and gave away their possessions because they would not need them on another planet.
• Researchers penetrated the group, claiming to be believers and were able to sit in discussions; were able to keep careful records of what was said and done.
• The beliefs of the Seekers group instead strengthened and began making speeches, began speaking giving out leaflets after "rescue" had failed to occur once and then twice.
• The Seekers theory was that the more you receive social support, the more constancy of an opinion in the face of possible evidence that is wrong occurs.
• Researchers must be ethical while using participant behavior to understand individuals within a cult.

Direct Observation of Behavior

• Direct observation of behavior involves:rather than asking subjects questions, or participating in their activities, a researcher may observe their behavior directly, from out- side the situation and can tell us much.
• Ethology is involved in the study of animal and human behavior in its natural setting.

Ethology Example

• Reproductive behavior of the three-spined stickleback:the male stickleback fish comes into reproductive condition during spring.
• Male stickleback fish builds an underwater nest and patrols back and forth around the entrance to the nest.
• Male stickleback fish reacts either by making a "threat display" if another male approaches or reacts by a "zigzag" dance to court if a female approaches.
• If courtship is successful, there is meticulous choreographed mating sequence followed by the male chasing her callously away, but then takes over job of caring for eggs until they hatch (or "fanning').""
• It was discovered that each reaction is triggered by a characteristic releasing stimulus.
• Experiments showed that reaction does not require training; revolutionizing the way we look at behavior.
• Ethological observations claim very complex sequences of actions can occur in the absence of any experiences that could have "taught" them, which allows "instinctive behavior" to be part of study.

Human ethology

Facial expressions and behavior is analyzed

• Studies show there is an "eyebrow flash" which has been shown to take place in many different cultures.
• It depends on what expressions are appropriate through "display rules."

Direct Observation- Book Carrying

• Human Ethology includes how books are carried - Women carry their books with arms bent, cradling them against their chests, while men are likely to carry them with arms straight, books sup- ported by the fingers.

Testing Hypotheses with Observations

• Observational research can be used to test specific hypotheses - not just exploratory research that asks and deals with questions in an open ended way.
• There are examples from clinical psychology: Smoking, Obesity, and Self- help for example.
• Schachter's study revealed that data was more optimistic when researching those who had not gone to clinics for help and has a much higher success rate.
• The results are misleading for people because clinic research is on the most severe.

Maternal Responsiveness and Infant Crying

• Mothers have different courses of action for how they handle a baby who is crying.
• Reinforcement theory suggests attention acts is an end result. Then, if the baby is crying that reinforcement will be recognized resulting in a constantly crying baby. Attachment theory goes in 3 ways. If the baby learns that he cannot manipulate you, then he is also learning that he cannot depend on your responding to the signals he gives and the baby may fail to form "basic trust."
• Two theories make different predictions about how parents act when their child is crying and needs attention.
• Reinforcement theory suggests those that respond often are more fussier and those that are unresponsive are less fussy. Attachment suggests the opposite.
• Observational study from the Bell and Ainsworth study shows the the correlation is negative. And suggests the notion of comforting is not what is suggested.

The Value of Observational Research

• Theory/data cycle involves the interplay between your ideas and the data around you.
• A research can enter the cycle from either "place." Either a theory and seek to text it or beginning with a theory and seeking to test it.
• With exploration, then specific questions are asked by observing and analyzing others.
• Correlation does not establish causality, but correlational studies can sometimes disconfirm predictions of a causal theory.

Technical Problems in Observational Research

• Sciences bases data by observing it and is better when you're able to obtain data then to not receive anything at all.
• This chapter goes about problems of mislead data as such and what you can do to avoid.
• The first step in sampling bias. Then comes observer affects, observer bias, inferential bias, and the correlation of casualty fallacy. Such steps are integral and important while gathering data.

Technical Problems: Sampling

• Through sampling, scientists can see what people do or what people say. Then we can see which animals, what people, or what groups are to be observed.
• Then scientists can draw similar questions and principles. You're able to draw similar relationships and conclusions by doing so.
• Representative sampling: The study should begin with a representative sample of a population. Representatives are useful in research.

Sampling: Sample VS Population

Population is about knowing something vs the spoonful is only about the sample

• Samples: A small part that resembles a whole but isn't. Soup is the perfect example of those terms and ideals.
• Bias Samples: When a sample isn't represented well: "The researcher" reported surveys of American women's attitudes towards men.
• Self - selected Samples: Such a volunteer or "self-selected" samples are almost certain to be is bias towards has strong opinions and are eager to express them.
• Representative sample: A sample that we obtain for the people who we select from.
• Multistage sampling: An example of this is when you have a student in America. You would collect all universities, and then take a random stage to get one student in the USA.
• Systematic Study of Study: This one to observe every earth caste when I was in the monkey case, I would like to go from person number seven student.
• As we see from this the researcher has is unable to affect any of the data in a number in which what to record.

Purposive Sampling

• May purposely are going for some type of subject with "the particular" sample - in example, the sample as with "The seekers" in the chapter.
• Convince Sampling : The Kind of sampling is by far the most comment research with subject to access with "the most subjects". The end of the initial student intervisions there was a small the most students.
• Generalization from diversity can lead to these problems and with small or consistent study. "Generality": We need to find a method and what this is.

Observer Effects: Technical

• You must consider what our subject's affect's are or how what the result will be.
• When knowing and in viewing with a kid. the kids will see you as an example and act accordingly.
• What happens if a horse can to math problems. Hans said he was right. The term observer with affect has its subject when the observer is giving more information to its host.
• Facilitate communication and then other ways that it makes and show our support's. It is now and after we that was not there and said that she wanted to help with the support and communication
• Here people do things with the cuing and with questions at all are depended.
• It can be better and more open before seeing its bias is very open and clear for all to study.

Observer Bias- Summary

• The problem with this is the effect there with the biases and what happens. Those in what they have been and thought what is right than is nothing!
• What is right and we be the problem but can effect their studies more.
• When doing the study be sure to not be biased.