Observational Research in Psychology ch4

Overview of Observational Research

• Observational research is a critical method in psychology
• It allows researchers to gather data about behavior without manipulating variables
• Researchers cannot observe all behaviors of every individual or an entire population
• Sampling techniques are used to collect representative data

Sampling in Observational Research

• The goal is to infer broader behavioral patterns from a representative sample of a larger population
• Sample acquisition: Researchers select individuals, moments, behaviors, and contexts to understand broader trends
• External validity: This refers to the degree to which findings can be generalized across different populations, environments, and conditions
• Establishing external validity is crucial to determine if the sample's findings apply beyond the observed group

Methods of Sampling Behavior

• Time sampling: Selecting predetermined time intervals for observation (systematically or randomly) to observe behaviors
• Less effective for infrequent behaviors, in which case event sampling may be used
• Situation sampling: Observing behavior across different settings or conditions to enhance external validity
• This can involve selecting subjects within the environment to create a more inclusive sample of the population

Classification of Observational Methods

• Observational methods are categorized into two major groups with different methodologies

Observation without Intervention

• Unobtrusive observation in natural settings to depict behavior as it occurs naturally. This strengthens external validity
• Observation with intervention includes methods like participant observation, structured observation, and field experiments, where the researcher may manipulate variables and observe resultant behaviors.

Observation Techniques: Pros and Cons

• Naturalistic Observation: Documenting behaviors without interfering. Ethical considerations are important, as manipulation can lead to complications
• Participant Observation: Researchers actively engage within the studied environment. Potential biases can occur if observers become too involved or lose objectivity, particularly in disguised situations.
• Structured Observation: Creating specific situations to observe behaviors employing confederates. Examples include studies on change blindness.

Field Experiments

• Researchers manipulate variables in natural settings to observe behavior changes. Maintaining control is vital to ensure the variables effectively influence outcomes

Recording Behavior

• Observational findings can be reported using qualitative or quantitative methods.

• Qualitative Records: Used when detailed documentation of behaviors is essential (e.g., videotapes, audiotapes, field notes). They allow for deeper behavioral understanding but can be resource-intensive.

• Quantitative Records: Focus on measuring selected behaviors numerically (e.g., frequency counts, durations, scales). This enables statistical analysis to establish clearer behavioral patterns.

Analyzing Observational Data

• The analysis of observational data depends on how the data was recorded and the chosen measurement scale. Qualitative and quantitative approaches exist.
• Qualitative Analysis: Involves using narrative records, arranging data meaningfully, and validating conclusions. It aims to construct theories based on observed behaviors.
• Quantitative Analysis: Leverages specific measurable behaviors, such as percentages, averages, to facilitate clear interpretations of the data

Reliability and Validity in Observational Research

• Reliability: Refers to the consistency of observations across different viewers or criteria, while ensuring that observers’ variability doesn't compromise data quality
• Factors affecting reliability: Observer characteristics (attention levels, biases); clarity of behavioral criteria defined for observation.
• Validity: The degree to which findings can be generalized across different populations, environments, and conditions

Challenges and Critical Considerations

• Observer Influence (Reactivity): Behaviors can change simply because individuals are aware that they are being observed. Concealed observation or adapting an observer's presence can mitigate this issue.
• Observer Bias: Preconceived expectations or biases can skew observations, potentially resulting in inaccurate interpretations. Keeping observers unaware of certain aspects of the study can reduce bias.