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Questions and Answers
What type of radiation can a Geiger counter effectively detect?
What type of radiation can a Geiger counter effectively detect?
Which unit measures the biological effects of radiation equivalent in humans?
Which unit measures the biological effects of radiation equivalent in humans?
What is the primary function of a dosimeter?
What is the primary function of a dosimeter?
What is the average annual radiation exposure for a person in the United States?
What is the average annual radiation exposure for a person in the United States?
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Which of the following is a significant source of natural radiation exposure?
Which of the following is a significant source of natural radiation exposure?
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Which radiation type is more damaging than alpha particles?
Which radiation type is more damaging than alpha particles?
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What is the dose from cosmic rays as a source of natural radiation?
What is the dose from cosmic rays as a source of natural radiation?
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Radiation exposure of less than which value is usually not detectable?
Radiation exposure of less than which value is usually not detectable?
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What particle is emitted during beta decay?
What particle is emitted during beta decay?
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Which statement correctly describes gamma emission?
Which statement correctly describes gamma emission?
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What is the result of positron emission on the atomic number of an element?
What is the result of positron emission on the atomic number of an element?
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If a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, how is the resulting new nucleus defined?
If a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, how is the resulting new nucleus defined?
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Which element is produced from the beta decay of yttrium-90?
Which element is produced from the beta decay of yttrium-90?
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In the nuclear equation for alpha decay, what particle is represented by $^4_2He$?
In the nuclear equation for alpha decay, what particle is represented by $^4_2He$?
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When considering radiation types, which one does not affect the mass number?
When considering radiation types, which one does not affect the mass number?
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What is the role of a neutron in beta decay?
What is the role of a neutron in beta decay?
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What is the charge of an alpha particle?
What is the charge of an alpha particle?
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Which type of radiation is considered to be identical to a helium nucleus?
Which type of radiation is considered to be identical to a helium nucleus?
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What process leads to the formation of a beta particle in an unstable nucleus?
What process leads to the formation of a beta particle in an unstable nucleus?
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Which type of radiation has the highest energy?
Which type of radiation has the highest energy?
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What is the mass number of a positron?
What is the mass number of a positron?
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Which of the following statements is true about gamma rays?
Which of the following statements is true about gamma rays?
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What distinguishes a beta particle from a positron?
What distinguishes a beta particle from a positron?
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What is the range of alpha particles from their source?
What is the range of alpha particles from their source?
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Which type of tissue is most sensitive to radiation damage?
Which type of tissue is most sensitive to radiation damage?
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What type of shielding is required for gamma rays?
What type of shielding is required for gamma rays?
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When writing a balanced nuclear equation, how must the mass numbers on each side relate?
When writing a balanced nuclear equation, how must the mass numbers on each side relate?
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What happens to the atomic number of a nucleus that undergoes alpha decay?
What happens to the atomic number of a nucleus that undergoes alpha decay?
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How is a nuclear equation written for radioactive decay?
How is a nuclear equation written for radioactive decay?
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What is the atomic symbol for the new nucleus formed from the alpha decay of Am-241?
What is the atomic symbol for the new nucleus formed from the alpha decay of Am-241?
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Which of the following is a potential consequence of radiation exposure?
Which of the following is a potential consequence of radiation exposure?
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When determining the missing atomic number during alpha decay, what is subtracted from the original atomic number?
When determining the missing atomic number during alpha decay, what is subtracted from the original atomic number?
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What is the lethal dose (LD50) of radiation expected to cause death in 50% of humans exposed?
What is the lethal dose (LD50) of radiation expected to cause death in 50% of humans exposed?
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Which of the following is a correct conversion between units of radiation measurement?
Which of the following is a correct conversion between units of radiation measurement?
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What is the half-life of Carbon-14?
What is the half-life of Carbon-14?
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Which type of radiation is emitted by Strontium-90?
Which type of radiation is emitted by Strontium-90?
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What is the relationship between rem and sievert as units of biological damage?
What is the relationship between rem and sievert as units of biological damage?
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Which element has the longest half-life listed in the medical radioisotopes?
Which element has the longest half-life listed in the medical radioisotopes?
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Which of the following applications best describes the use of radioactivity in medicine?
Which of the following applications best describes the use of radioactivity in medicine?
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What happens to white blood cell counts with whole body exposure of 1 Sv?
What happens to white blood cell counts with whole body exposure of 1 Sv?
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Study Notes
Nuclear Chemistry
- Radiation technologists work in hospitals or imaging centers using nuclear medicine to diagnose and treat various medical conditions.
5.1 Natural Radioactivity
- Unstable nuclei spontaneously emit small energy particles (radiation) to become more stable.
- The learning goal is to describe alpha, beta, positron, and gamma radiation.
Radioisotopes
- A radioisotope is an unstable nucleus that emits radiation.
- It can be one or more isotopes of an element.
- Mass numbers are included in its name.
- Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope used in archeological dating. Its mass number is 14 and its atomic number is 6.
Types of Radiation Emitted
- Radioisotopes emit various types of radiation.
- Alpha (α) particles are identical to helium nuclei.
- Beta (β) particles are high-energy electrons.
- Positrons (β⁺) are antimatter particles that are the same mass as electrons but have a positive charge.
- Gamma (γ) rays are pure energy.
Alpha Particles
- Alpha particles are identical to helium nuclei.
- They have 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
- Mass number is 4.
- Charge is 2+.
- Low energy compared to other forms of radiation.
- Travel a short distance (2-4 cm) from the source.
Beta Particles
- Beta particles are high-energy electrons.
- Mass number is 0.
- Charge is 1-.
- Formed in unstable nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an electron.
Positrons
- Positrons have a mass number of 0.
- Have a charge of 1+.
- Created when a proton changes into a neutron and a positron in an unstable nucleus.
Gamma Rays
- Gamma rays are high-energy radiation.
- Have a mass number of 0 and a charge of 0.
- These are emitted from unstable nuclei to become more stable and have lower energy.
Some Forms of Radiation
- Table details different types of radiation, including their symbols, mass numbers, and charges.
Biological Effects of Radiation
- Ionizing radiation damages molecules along its path.
- Rapidly dividing cells (bone marrow, skin, reproductive organs, and cancer cells) are most sensitive to radiation.
- Cancer cells are highly sensitive to radiation, and high doses are used to destroy them.
- Normal tissue around cancer cells divides more slowly and is less damaged by radiation.
- Radiation can cause malignant tumors, leukemia, anemia, and genetic mutations.
Radiation Protection
- Protection from radiation depends on the type of radiation.
- Alpha particles are stopped by paper and clothing.
- Beta particles are stopped by lab coats or gloves.
- Gamma rays require lead shields or thick concrete walls.
- Limiting time near a radioactive source and increasing distance from the source reduce exposure.
Radiation Protection (additional)
- Different types of radiation penetrate the body to varying depths.
- Wear protective clothing, gloves, and shields when working with radioisotopes.
5.3 Radiation Measurement
- A radiation counter is used to measure radiation levels, like at nuclear power plants.
- The learning goal is to describe how to detect and measure radiation.
Geiger Counter
- A Geiger counter is a common instrument for detecting beta and gamma radiation.
- It uses ions from radiation to create an electric current.
Units for Measuring Radiation
- Units for measuring radiation activity include:
- Curie (Ci): the number of disintegrations in 1 second for 1 gram of radium (3.7 x 10¹⁰ disintegrations/s).
- Becquerel (Bq): the SI unit of radiation activity (1 disintegration/s).
- Rad (radiation absorbed dose): measures the amount of absorbed radiation by a gram of material.
- Rem (radiation equivalent in humans): measures the biological effects of various types of radiation.
Measuring Radiation Damage
- Rem measures the biological damage from radiation.
- Alpha particles, which don't penetrate skin, can cause significant damage if they enter the body.
- Higher energy radiation, including beta particles, high-energy protons, and neutrons, cause more damage.
- Gamma rays are highly damaging because they travel a long distance through tissue.
Dosimeters Measure Radiation Exposure
- People in radiation labs wear dosimeters to measure radiation exposure.
- They detect exposure to X-rays, gamma rays, and beta particles.
Radiation Exposure
- The average person in the US is exposed to 3.6 mSv of radiation annually.
- Exposure occurs from naturally occurring radioisotopes in buildings, food, water, and air.
- Medical sources include X-rays and mammograms.
Average Annual Radiation Exposure
- A table presents average annual radiation exposure from various sources.
Radiation Sickness
- Exposure to less than 0.25 Sv of radiation is usually undetectable.
- Whole-body exposure to 1 Sv can cause temporary white blood cell decrease.
- Exposure over 1 Sv can induce radiation sickness (nausea, vomiting, fatigue, reduced white blood cells).
- An exposure of 5 Sv is likely to cause death in 50% of the people exposed.
Lethal Dose of Radiation
- The table 5.6 displays lethal doses for different life forms depending on the type of radiation and duration of exposure.
Half-Life of a Radioisotope
- The half-life is the time it takes for a radioisotope’s radiation level to reduce to half of its original value.
Half-Lives of Radioisotopes
- A table listing half-lives of various radioisotopes (natural and medical) with their associated radiation type.
Medical Applications Using Radioactivity
- Different radioisotopes are used to diagnose and treat a variety of diseases.
- Detailed information on specific radioisotopes and their medical applications in a table.
5.2 Nuclear Reactions
- Equations depict changes in nuclear reactions.
- Atomic symbols are used to represent mass and atomic numbers in nuclear equations.
Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Equations
- Unstable nuclei spontaneously break down (decay) by emitting radiation.
- Equations show this breakdown into a new nucleus plus radiation.
- To balance a nuclear equation, the mass numbers and atomic numbers must equal on both sides of the equation.
Alpha Decay
- When alpha particles are emitted, the new nucleus has its mass number decreased by 4 and atomic number by 2.
Beta Decay
- A beta particle is essentially an electron emitted.
- During beta decay, a neutron converts into a proton and a beta particle, increasing the atomic number by one.
Positron Emission
- In positron emission, a proton in an atom changes into a neutron and a positron, decreasing the atomic number by one.
Gamma Emission
- Gamma emission involves emitted energy from an unstable nucleus; the mass number and atomic number of the new nucleus remain the same.
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Description
Explore the fundamentals of nuclear chemistry, focusing on natural radioactivity and the types of radiation emitted by radioisotopes. Learn about the properties of alpha, beta, positron, and gamma radiation, along with the significance of isotopes like Carbon-14 in various applications. This quiz will test your understanding of the concepts related to nuclear medicine and radioactive decay.
