Nuclear Chemistry & Chemical Bonding

Nuclear Chemistry & Astrophysics

• Nucleosynthesis is the creation of new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons.
• The Big Bang Theory explains the universe's expansion from a hot, dense state.
• Stellar nucleosynthesis forms elements inside stars.
• The alpha ladder process primarily produces elements up to iron (atomic number 26).
• Supernova nucleosynthesis involves rapid neutron capture (r-process).
• Moseley arranged the periodic table by increasing atomic number.
• In atomic notation (AZX), 'A' represents the mass number.
• Superheavy elements have atomic numbers greater than 103.
• Particle accelerators accelerate charged particles to high speeds.
• Nuclear reactions like the formation of Curium are different from chemical reactions (e.g., water boiling, combustion of methane).

Chemical Bonding & Molecular Properties

• Electronegativity is an atom's ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
• Polar covalent bonds involve unequal sharing of electrons.
• London dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular forces.
• Hydrogen bonds occur between hydrogen and a highly electronegative atom (N, O, or F).
• Viscosity measures a fluid's resistance to flow.
• Miscibility describes the ability of two liquids to mix completely.
• A molecule with a net dipole moment is polar.
• Ionic bonds involve a complete transfer of electrons.
• The strength of London Dispersion Forces depends on molecular size and shape.
• Strong intermolecular forces are associated with high boiling points.

Chemistry of Matter

• Organic compounds primarily contain carbon and hydrogen.
• Proteins are made of amino acids.
• Nucleic acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
• The correct chemical formula for hydrogen peroxide is H₂O₂.
• The general formula for alkanes is CnH₂n+₂.
• A monomer is a repeating unit of a polymer.
• Polymers form through addition reactions.
• The functional group of an alcohol is -OH.
• Isomers have the same molecular formula but different structures.
• Saturated hydrocarbons lack double or triple bonds; unsaturated hydrocarbons have them.

Reaction Kinetics & Collision Theory

• Reaction collisions with sufficient energy and proper orientation are necessary for reactions to occur.
• Increasing surface area increases reaction collision frequency.
• Increased temperature increases the reaction rate.
• Catalysts decrease activation energy.
• Activation energy is the energy required to start a reaction.
• Slow reactions generally have higher activation energies.
• Catalysts decrease activation energy.
• The slowest step in a reaction mechanism is the rate-determining step.
• Increased concentration increases reaction rate.
• A reaction mechanism is a series of elementary steps describing a reaction.

Chemical Reactions

• The balanced equation for sucrose combustion is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O.
• Combustion is an oxidation-reduction reaction.
• A neutralization reaction involves an acid and a base.
• A precipitation reaction forms a solid.
• A redox reaction involves electron transfer.
• An oxidizing agent gains electrons.
• A reducing agent loses electrons.
• A reaction between an acid and a metal produces salt and hydrogen gas.
• Rusting is an example of an oxidation reaction.
• A synthesis reaction forms one product from multiple reactants.

Additional Concepts

• The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• A limiting reactant is the reactant completely consumed.
• Stoichiometry studies the quantitative relationships in chemical reactions.
• Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance.
• Avogadro's number is 6.022 x 10²³.
• A mole is a unit of the amount of substance.
• An empirical formula shows the simplest ratio, while a molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms.
• Molarity is moles of solute per liter of solution.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
• The solute is the substance dissolved.