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Urinary System

• The loop of Henle is composed of the thin descending limb and the thick ascending limb.
• The liver is located in the right upper quadrant.
• The ureter connects the kidney to the bladder.
• The external urethral sphincter is a voluntary muscle.
• The digestive tract signals hormone release for hunger and fullness.

Endocrine System

• The pituitary gland secretes 9 hormones.
• Hormones can be classified as amino acid derivatives, peptide hormones, or lipid derivatives.
• Oxytocin helps control bleeding after childbirth.
• The hypothalamus sends signals to the pituitary gland to control hormone release.
• Type 1 diabetes involves the pancreas not producing or using insulin properly.
• The heart releases atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).
• Rickets is a disorder caused by calcitriol deficiency in children.
• Menopause is an age-related side effect of decreasing female sex hormones.

Metabolism and Energetics

• Metabolism is the process of energy transformation in the body.
• The goal of metabolism is to balance energy production and usage.
• Anabolism creates new molecules for growth and repair.
• Catabolism breaks down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.
• The liver detoxifies harmful substances.
• Kidneys regulate fluid, pH, and electrolytes in metabolism.
• 40% of energy released during catabolism is captured by ATP.
• Cellular respiration produces most of the cell's ATP.
• Diabetes is a metabolic disease where the body does not produce or use insulin properly.
• Mitochondrial disease results in the mitochondria's inability to generate energy.

Cell Biology

• PMAT, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase are the four phases of mitosis where cells duplicate.
• An atom has protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Muscle tissue types are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
• A covalent bond forms when atoms share electrons to become stable.
• A molecule is one or more elements bonded together.

Lymphatic/Immune System

• Lymph is a fluid containing white blood cells that circulates through lymphatic vessels.
• The spleen filters blood and helps fight infections.
• The lymphatic system maintains fluid balance and protects against infection.
• White blood cells are primarily involved in the immune response.
• Lymph nodes filter lymph and trap pathogens.
• T cells attack infected cells.
• Tonsils trap and remove pathogens that enter the throat.
• Lymphatic vessels collect and transport lymph.
• Lymphedema is swelling due to lymph accumulation.
• The thymus is responsible for T-cell maturation.