Norms, Values and Deviance

Norms

• Accepted ways of behaving in a society.
• All laws are norms, but not all norms are laws.
• Deviance is the result of breaking a norm.

Deviance

• Any behavior differing from what is considered normal.
• Deviant behavior can be:
  • Unusual and good (heroism).
  • Unusual and eccentric (talking to trees).
  • Unusual and bad (attacking someone).
• Criminologists are most concerned with the third type, which involves breaking rules and norms.
• Breaking rules can cause negative reactions from others.

Values

• Specific cultural goals.
• Norms follow values; a norm prescribes behavior, and a value justifies it.
• Values explain why some actions are favored over others.

Norms and Values Example

• Value: Earning money to provide for family.
• Norm: Going to work.
• Criminal norm: Theft or fraud.

Sanctions

• Punishments for breaking laws or norms, severity depends on the act.

Informal Sanctions

• Punishments for not following social norms in informal settings, such as grounding a child.

Formal Sanctions

• Enforcing social norms at a legal level, such as imprisonment.

Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions

• Prison sentences.
• Fines.
• Community service.

Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions

• A friend telling you off for speeding.
• Parents grounding a teenager for underage smoking.

Social Construction

• The idea that crime has no objective reality.
• Rather, society constructs crime.
• Crime varies by time, culture, and circumstances.
• Crime and deviance are relative.

How Laws Change from Culture to Culture

• Different cultures have different expectations for appropriate behavior.
• What is a crime in one culture may not be in another.
• Issues arise when individuals from one culture live in another but hold onto their original cultural beliefs about right and wrong.

Examples of Different Laws Between Cultures

• Female Genital Mutilation.
• Bigamy.
• Euthanasia.
• Smacking children.
• Drugs (alcohol or cannabis).
• Homosexuality.
• Same-sex marriage.
• Abortion.

Culturally Different Laws Legal in the UK

• Smacking children.
• Homosexuality.
• Same-sex marriage.
• Abortion.

Culturally Different Laws Illegal in the UK

• Female Genital Mutilation.
• Bigamy.
• Euthanasia.
• Cannabis use.

How Laws Change Over Time

• The definition of crime changes to reflect society's changing norms and values.
• Examining how behaviors are treated differently over time sheds light on the socially constructed nature of crime.
• The 1960s in Britain, the "permissive age," saw a loosening of moral codes and the passing of liberalizing laws.

Examples of Criminalization in the UK

• Heroin was legal until around 1920.
• Smoking was legal in pubs and clubs until 2007.
• Incest was not a crime until 1908.

Examples of Decriminalization in the UK

• The Abortion Act 1967 legalized abortion.
• Attempted suicide was a criminal offense until 1961.
• Male homosexual behavior was a crime until 1967.
• The National Prohibition Act in the USA banned alcohol production and sale (1919-1933).

How Laws Differ Based on Circumstances

• Place: The location of the offense matters.
• Specific Circumstances: Crime involves conscious rule-breaking.
• Age: Acts committed by those below the age of criminal responsibility are not considered crimes.
• Mental Health: Those with mental illness may be considered incapable of conscious intention.

Age and Criminal Responsibility

• In England, if one is under 10 years old, they aren't held criminally responsible.
• A 3-year-old taking sweets without paying is not a crime.

Mental Health and Criminal Intent

• Individuals must have the intention to commit a criminal act to be deemed criminals.
• Those with psychiatric illness may be deemed incapable of criminal behavior, and may be placed in a psychiatric institute instead of prison.

Cesare Lombroso (1876)

• Italian psychiatrist and military doctor.
• Believed criminals are a subspecies between modern and primitive humans.
• Shifted criminology from moral to scientific basis.
• Regarded as the "father of criminology".

Lombroso's Theory

• Criminals are born with criminality, evident in the physical shape of the face and head
• Criminality is heritable.
• Stated that criminals were genetic throwbacks, a primitive subspecies biologically different from non-criminals incapable of adapting to modern morality.

Physiological Markers (Lombroso)

• Theory says that criminal types are physically different from the general population.
• Criminal subtype identified by atavistic characters.

Atavistic Characteristics (Lombroso)

• Physiological markers indicating criminality.
• Key markers: strong jaw, heavy brow.
• Other features: high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, large ears, extra nipples/toes/fingers, insensitivity to pain.

Crime-Specific Atavistic Characteristics (Lombroso)

• Murderers: bloodshot eyes, long ears, curly hair.
• Sex offenders: thick lips, glinting eyes, protruding ears.
• Fraudsters: thin lips.

Cause and Effect (Lombroso)

• Research involved Italian prisoners.
• Physical characteristics may have aligned with malnutrition signs because those studied were poor and subject to poor nutrition.

Contradictory Evidence (Lombroso)

• No non-criminal control group used for comparison.
• Goring (1913) compared 3000 English convicts and 3000 non-convicts, establishing that there was nothing that proved that offenders are a distinct group.

Reductionism (Lombroso)

• Lombroso's theory only considers biological factors related to facial structure.
• Later acknowledged environmental factors contribute to criminality; atavistic characteristics account for 40% of criminal acts

Reductionism Definition

• Environmental factors, such as learning criminal behavior, impact criminality.
• Diathesis-stress model: behavior results from genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and environmental trigger (stress).
• Environmental factors include family background, housing, and poverty.
• Reductionism occurs when theories only consider one type of factor.

Key Words - Evaluation

• Reductionist: Considers only one explanation.
• Holistic: Considers multiple factors.
• Deterministic: Assumes someone with a trait will become a criminal.
• Sample bias: Studies only of convicted criminals are not representative.
• Gender bias: Research focuses on biological men and therefore may not explain female criminality.
• Crime is a social construct - a crime varies over time/place etc, then how can we look for a universal explanation
• Diathesis-stress model: Combination of biological and environmental factors.

William Sheldon (1949) - "The Varieties of Delinquent Youth"

• Sheldon collected over 4000 photos of male students
• Sheldon proposed three basic body builds (somatotypes):
  • Ectomorph
  • Endomorph
  • Mesomorph
• Body types are linked to personality.
• Pure somatotypes are rare; most people are a mixture.

Ectomorph

• Thin, introverted, and restrained.

Endomorph

• Fat, sociable, and relaxed.

Mesomorph

• Muscular, aggressive, and adventurous.
• Mesomorphs more prone to criminal activities
• Level of criminality is related to how mesomorphic someone was.

Methods (Sheldon)

• Assessed somatotypes of 200 college students and 200 delinquents from photographs.
• Rated each photo for mesomorphy from 1 (low) to 7 (high).
• Students averaged 3.8; delinquents averaged 4.6.
• Results supported Sheldon's theory.

Supporting Evidence (Sheldon)

• Hart et al (1982) found the most seriously delinquent people had a rating of 5.
• Several studies support the theory.
• Mesomorphic builds may reflect high testosterone levels, increasing risk of criminal behavior.

Cause and Effect (Sheldon)

• Stereotypes about mesomorphs may draw them into delinquent activities.
• The judicial system may treat them more harshly.

Reductionism (Sheldon)

• Sheldon's theory is a weakness because it only looks at body shape.
• Research shows there are environmental factors which influence crime.

Chromosomes

• Tightly coiled DNA molecules containing genes.
• 46 chromosomes in two pairs.
• Sex determined by chromosome pattern (XX and XY).

Genes

• Sections of DNA coding for particular characteristics.

XX

• Female chromosomes.

XY

• Male chromosomes.

XYY Theory

• Men with XYY chromosomes may be more aggressive and more likely to commit violent crimes.

Correlating Evidence (XYY - Jacobs et al 1965)

• XYY may lead to high testosterone, powerful body build, acne and scars, heightened aggression, tendency for violent crime, and increased risk of learning disability.
• Jacobs et al (1965) found 3% of men in prison had an extra Y chromosome.

Contradicting Evidence (XYY - Jacobs et al 1965)

• Testosterone and aggression levels among XYY men are no different from XY men.
• XYY men are at increased risk of developmental delay and learning difficulties.
• IQ scores among convicted offenders are marginally lower than the general.
• Higher number of XYY men in the offender population may be due to learning difficulties associated with the condition.
• Witkins et al found that XYYs were often bad at being criminals with a lower IQ making them more likely to get caught.

Reductionism (XYY)

• The XYY theory is a weakness because it states only genetics influence criminality.
• The environment impacts criminal behavior.
• diathesis-stress model better explanation.

Adoption Studies

• Compare a child's adopted and biological parents.
• Similarities to adopted parents suggest environment.
• Similarities to biological parents indicate genetics.

Supporting Evidence (Adoption Studies)

• Mednick et al (1987) analyzed court convictions in Denmark.
• Having both criminal biological and adoptive parents increases the chance of child having record.
• Showed a strong relationship between having a biological parent convicted of a crime and a son committing a crime.

Twin Studies

• Compare monozygotic and dizygotic twins.
• If genetics has an impact on criminal behaviors or if they are down to the environment either type of twins share.
• Monozygotic share 100% DNA; dizygotic share 50%.

Monozygotic (MZ) (Twin Studies)

• Identical twins share the same environment and 100% DNA.
• Single egg is fertilized by single sperm, which then splits into two.
• Shared a sack in the womb.

Dizygotic (DZ) (Twin Studies)

• Fraternal twins share the same environment and 50% DNA.
• Separate eggs are fertilized by separate sperm.
• In the womb they have their own sacks.

Concordance Rates (Twin Studies)

• The extent to which both twins share the same characteristic.
• A higher number makes a genetic cause more likely.
• Monozygotic twins will have the highest rate if a behavior is genetic.

Supporting Evidence (Twin Studies)

• Christiansen (1977) gathered data on over 3,500 twin pairs.
• Concordance rate was 35% in identical male twins and 13% in non-identical male twins.
• The rate among female twins was significantly lower, 21% in identical twins and 8% in non-identical twins.
• Genetic factors contribute to criminal behavior.
• Crime may be less heritable in females.

Reductionism (Adoption Studies)

• The adoption studies are not reductionist because it considers the diathesis-stress model
• Recognizes that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to criminality.
• Aggression is not purely genetic, but there is an interaction between genes and the environment

Reductionism (Twin Studies)

• The twin studies are not reductionist because it recognizes that the environment has an impact as well as the DNA shared in the twins.

The Mobley Defence

• A defense stating someone is innocent due to genetic predisposition.
• Not a legal defense, but may be considered in sentencing.

Determinism Definition

• If someone is born with a gene, characteristic, etc., they are going to become a criminal.

Bayout (2007)

• Admitted to stabbing and killing a man in 2007.
• Appeal court judge cut his sentence by a year after finding he had gene variants linked to aggression.

Social Sensitivity

• Should criminals have their sentences cut for possessing such genes, or should they be locked away forever if we can't correct their faulty biology?
• Does this research mean we should test unborn children for aggression? If they are found to have the criminal gene should the parents opt not to have the child?
• Results of genetic studies could influence the justice system

Frontal Lobe Control

• Motor control (premotor cortex)
• Problem-solving (prefrontal area)
• Speech production (Broca's area)

Parietal Lobe Control

• Touch perception (somatosensory cortex)
• Body orientation.
• Sensory discrimination.

Occipital Lobe Control

• Sight (visual cortex)
• Visual reception
• Visual interpretation

Temporal Lobe Control

• Auditory processing (hearing)
• Language comprehension (Wernicke's area)
• Memory/Information retrieval

Cerebellum Control

• Balance and coordination.

Brainstem Control

• Involuntary responses.

Phineas Gage (Brain Injuries)

• Railroad worker who survived an iron rod passing through his skull and brain.
• Physically recovered but his personality changed.
• Became irritable, prone to profanity, and violent.
• Damaged frontal cortex.
• Indicates there may be dysfunction of prefrontal cortex with violent criminal behavior because it is associated with executive decision making, behavioral control and higher thinking processes.

Prefrontal Cortex Responsibility

• Executive decision making.
• Behavioral control.
• Higher thinking processes.

Charles Whitman (Brain Injuries)

• Expressed something was wrong with him and wanted an autopsy.
• Revealed a brain tumor pressing on his amygdala.
• Was concluded by the surgeon at the time to have no influence on his behaviour
• The amygdala has since been linked to regulating emotions and aggression.
• Other psychologists have suggested that Whitman's extremely strict father may have influenced the murders.

Amygdala (aka Limbic System) Responsibility

• Regulation of emotions.
• Fear and aggression.

Adrian Raine (1997) (Brain Injuries)

• Studied brains of serial killers on death row in USA.
• Found 3 differences:
  • Less activity in frontal lobe (prefrontal cortex) which is associated with impaired rational thinking, decision-making and self-restraint.
  • Less activity in parietal lobe which is associated with abstract thinking such as "morality" or "justice".
  • An imbalance of activity in limbic system (amygdala): associated with emotional regulation and aggression.

MAOA Gene - "Warrior Gene" (Brain Injuries)

• Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) breaks down neurotransmitters in the brain.
• Low serotonin linked to impulsive and aggressive behavior.
• One variant associated with high MAOA (MAOA-H), another with low MAOA (MAOA-L).
• Several studies have found a correlation between the low-activity form of the MAOA gene and aggression

Biological Policies

• Crime control policies designed to reduce criminal acts.
• Criminal Justice Act 2003 aims at 'public protection'.
• Four biological policies:
  • Eugenic policies.
  • Surgical castration.
  • Death penalty.
  • Biochemical processes.

Eugenic Policies - Francis Galton

• In Nazi Germany, killed over 200,000 disabled people and forcibly sterilised over twice that number.
• Used Lebensborn birth houses to increase birth rate of "Aryan" children.
• Britain linked physical and learning disabilities to social problems.
• In the United States over sixty thousand eugenic sterilisations were performed between 1907 and 1963.

Alan Turing

• Pleaded guilty to gross indecency for homosexual acts in 1952.
• Accepted chemical castration to avoid imprisonment.
• Side effects led to Turing committing suicide.

Surgical Sterilization (Biological Policies)

• Eliminating reproductive opportunities for criminals.
• Female prisoners in California lied to about surgical procedures.

Death Penalty / Capital Punishments (Biological Policies)

• Last time it was performed was 1964, suspended in 1965 but only banned under all circumstances in 1998
• Legal in China, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, and 27/50 of American States.

Death Penalty Pros

• Public support.
• Acts as a deterrent as execution is a certainty
• Offers retribution to families of victims.
• No risk of reoffending.
• May be less expensive than life imprisonment.

Death Penalty Cons

• Risk of wrongful execution.
• Not a deterrent as people still commit crime.
• Is expensive.
• Suggests no role for rehabilitation.
• Bias toward class and race.
• In the USA, a disproportional number of people on death row are black or mixed race.

Protected Characteristics

• Age.
• Disability.
• Sex.
• Gender reassignment.
• Race.
• Religion or Belief.
• Sexual orientation.
• Marriage and Civil partnership.
• Pregnancy and Maternity.

British Values

• Democracy.
• Tolerance of different faiths and beliefs.
• Mutual Respect.
• Individual liberty.
• Rule of law.

Biochemical Processes

• Linked to criminality: testosterone, substance abuse, dietary deficiencies.
• Individualized treatment programs for offenders.
• Stilbesterol to chemically castrate male sex offenders.
• Antabuse for alcohol-triggered violent behavior.
• Methadone for heroin addiction-related crime.

The Police Code (Moral Codes)

• Lays down nine policing principles:
  • Accountability
  • Integrity
  • Openness
  • Fairness
  • Leadership
  • Respect
  • Honesty
  • Objectivity
  • Selflessness
• Officer duties include opposing discrimination and making unbiased decisions.

Moral Codes

• Basic rules, values, and principles held by an individual, group, organization, or society.
• May be written down.
• Police Code of Ethics guides core principles and standards officers should uphold.

Marxism

• Created by Karl Marx.
• Live in a capitalist society which is full of conflict between the classes
• Affects every bit of our lives, including crime.
• Marxism theory has three main elements:
  • Crimogenic Capitalism
  • The State and Law Making
  • Ideological Functions of Crime and Law.

Capitalism

• "an economic system that is based on the private ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange"
• Marxists see this capitalist society as being based on an unequal conflict between two social classes: The Ruling Class and the Working Class
• Capitalist societies encourage crime.
• Ruling class determines acceptable and unacceptable activities.

The Ruling Class (Bourgeoisie)

• Those who own the means of production.

The Working Class (The Proletariat)

• Workers exploited by the ruling class.

Crimogenic Capitalism (Marxism)

• Capitalism causes crime.
• Inevitable due to exploitation of the working class for profit.
• Poverty, desire for goods, alienation, and lack of control drives working-class crime.
• Capitalist competition encourages greed and corporate crimes.

The State and Law Making (Marxism)

• Serves interests of the capitalist class.
• Law protects private property.
• Ruling class prevents laws threatening their interests.

Ideological Functions of Crime and Law (Marxism)

• Serves the rich.
• Maintains capitalist position.
• Apparent worker protection laws can be reinterpreted as ways to keep the working class loyal to the capitalist system
• Healthy workers benefit the ruling class.

Ruling Class Crimes (Marxism)

• Corporate crime rarely prosecuted.

Working Class Crimes (Marxism)

• Regularly prosecuted.

Ruling and Working Class Crimes (Marxism)

• Working-class crimes are a drop in the ocean compared to the vast sums involved in the criminal activities of those at the top.
• Harsh punishment of the working class maintains the class system.

Informing Policy Development (Marxism)

• Criminals should be punished to maintain the social order.
• 18th-century punishments (hanging and transportation) were a 'rule of terror' on the poor.
• US prison system soaks up 30-40% of the unemployed, making capitalism appear successful.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism): Statistics show that the working classes commit more crime. Explain how Marxism helps us to understand these statistics.

• Useful explanation of crime in capitalist society.
• Shows lawmaking, enforcement linked to capitalist interests.
• Explains reasons for more working-class crime such as financial gain, or maybe its just they are caught more often!

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism): Marxism suggests that the working class WILL commit crime, is this always true? Use evaluation terminology here.

• Can be very deterministic.
• Over-predicts working-class crime, not allowing for free will.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism): From the Marxist perspective, crime is the fault of capitalism, how could this idea be used as an excuse for committing crime?

• Deterministic and socially sensitive.
• Could excuse working-class crime; no choice but to commit crime.
• Could excuse ruling-class crime through the encouragement that capitalism creates.

Example Evaluation Question (Marxism): The theory claims that capitalism causes crime so we should expect all capitalist societies to have high crime rates. BUT can you think of any capitalist societies which may have low crime rates?

• Claims capitalism causes crime.
• There are those who have low crime rates such as Switzerland and Japan, on the other hand there are those of a communist state where crime still exists.

Functionalism

• Structural theory where structures of society determines individual's behavior.
• Based on value consensus.
• Sharing culture produces social solidarity.
• Culture binds individuals together, outlining goals and behavior.

Value Consensus

• Members of a society all share a common culture.