New Testament: Contextual Interpretation

• Context is always shifting, making interpretation dynamic.

Historical Events

• Historical events play a crucial role in providing context.

Contexts

• Contexts span multiple domains: historical, socio-cultural, intellectual, religious, and linguistic.
• Linguistic context includes the original teaching and speaking in Aramaic, contrasted with modern reception in English.

Oral Tradition

• Oral traditions were early contexts which include written sources.
• Some claim ‘the first letter written by Paul' is an example of existing written sources.

New Testament Authors/editors

• New Testament authors and editors shape the text, like the Q source as an eyewitness to historical events.

New Testament Texts

• Modern readers interpret new testament texts.

Studying the New Testament

• Explore the historical/socio-cultural world behind the text.
• Consider the cultural significance of figures like tax collectors and Pharisees in understanding biblical passages (e.g., Luke 18:10).
• Analyze the literary/compositional aspects, such as comparing Mark's and Matthew's versions of Jesus walking on water.
• Address linguistic features and translation issues in the text.
• Explore narrative features in the text.
• Consider how biblical issues (e.g., 1 Timothy 2:11) resonate with a modern audience.

Historical Background of the New Testament

• The Destruction of Jerusalem and Babylonian Exile (580s-530s BCE) are key historical events.
• Lamentations 2:21, 4:1,4,9-11 reflects the Lord's wrath on 'innocent' people and the consequences of breaking the covenant.
• The Return and Restlessness (530s-430s BCE) involved a return without a full restoration.
• Key texts include Ezra 1:1-2, 3:10-12, Haggai 2:1-3, and Nehemiah 9:36-37.
• Ezra and Nehemiah form one book in Hebrew, and Tobit (found in Catholic bibles) provides relevant context (14:4-7).
• Hellenization and Persecution (330s-160s BCE) was initiated by Alexander the Great to unify his empire through Greek language/culture/education/philosophy/religion.
• The intentional spread of Greek culture to unify an empire is Hellenization.
• The priest Mattathias and his 5 sons launch the Maccabean Revolt in 167 BCE, a Jewish war of liberation from Seleucids.
• Mattathaias's descendants under Judas rule the Hasmonean Dynasty (140-63 BCE).
• The Hasmoneans acted as both kings and high priests, leading to controversy and divisions in Judaism.
• Roman Rule began in 63 BCE when Romans seized control of Judea.
• Herod the Great ruled under Roman authority from 37-4 BCE judges.
• Chronology of the New Testament Period includes key events such as the Birth of Jesus (6 BCE), Careers of John the Baptist and Jesus (26-30 CE), Death and Resurrection of Jesus (30 CE), Conversion/Calling of Paul (early-mid 30s CE), Paul's Missionary Journeys (late 40s-early 60s CE), Death of Peter & Paul (64 CE).

Authorship of the NT Books

• Some books are anonymous/semi-anonymous, where authors don't clearly identify themselves (e.g., Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Hebrews, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John).
• The gospel of John mentions "the disciple whom Jesus loved" as the one "who is testifying to these things and has written them" (21:20-24).
• The author of Acts sometimes uses the first-person plural ('we') to describe Paul's activities.
• Some authors identify as 'the elder' (2 John, 3 John), while 1 John is more of a sermon.
• Some books have named authors who identify themselves, but their accreditation isn't always accurate.
• The PRESUMED GENUINE books include Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon.
• DEBATED/POSSIBLY PSEUDONYMOUS books include Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, James, 1 Peter, Jude, Revelation.
• LIKELY PSEUDONYMOUS books include Ephesians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, 2 Peter.

Evidence for Pseudonymity

• Differences in vocabulary, style, or theology compared to other books by the same identified author indicate pseudonymity.
• 36% of words in the Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus) are unique compared to the ten other letters attributed to Paul.
• Historical implausibility and anachronism are signs of pseudonymity.
• Some suggest Paul wrote according to wisdom, but some matters are hard to understand and can be twisted (2 Peter 3:15-16).

Motives for Pseudonymity

• Attaching a false name can increase readership or give credit to teachers' works.

New Testament as a Canon

• The "Canon" is a collection of writings with religious authority.
• A fixed list of writings recognized as religiously authoritative scripture functions as a standard.

Criteria of Canonicity

• Apostolicity: written by an apostle or close associate of Jesus.
• Established Usage: read and respected by Christians early on.
• Catholicity: read and respected in many places.
• Orthodoxy: consistent with other canonical writings and authoritative church teachings.

Practical Effects of the NT Canon

• Establishing a leveling of authority.
• Recognizing theological diversity within the NT.
• Calls attention to things not typically looked at, conflicting with Matthew 5:18 vs Mark 7:19, Philippians 2:5-7 vs Colossians 1:19, Romans 3:28 vs James 2:24.

Basic Concepts of NT Interpretation

• Exegesis draws out the author's intention.
• Exegesis involves explaining and interpreting texts.
• Hermeneutics is the theoretical study of interpreting texts, addressing how one interprets.
• A hermeneutic is a particular method of interpreting text.
• Interpretation is an ideal communication process involving addresser, message, and addressee.
• The context and medium (form the message takes) are important.
• NT interpretation involves understanding the addresser's and addressee's contexts.
• Lack of clarity can arise when encountering texts not in their original language.
• Even in the original Greek, language evolution affects understanding.
• Interpretive approaches react to quotes and cross-validate documents from that time.

Types of Interpretive Approaches

• Focus on the text itself ("in the text" approaches).
• Examine literary features: plot, characters, setting, rhetoric, symbolism, metaphor, irony, etc.
• Focus on "in front of the text," considering the author's/interpreter's original opinion.

Brief History of NT Interpretations

• What determines the meaning of NT texts?
• How can interpreters discern the meaning(s) of NT texts? (two central questions).
• Ancient and Medieval NT Interpretation (100-1500) commits to orthodox Christian faith.
• Meaning is determined by divine intention, discerned from a standpoint of faith and trusting God to aid understanding.

"Fourfold Sense" of scripture

• Literal meaning: historical events involving subjects or author.
• Allegorical/Typological meaning: theological level correspondences between the Old Testament and the life of Jesus.
• Tropological meaning: moral level guidance on how Christians should live.
• Anagogical meaning: prophetic level revelation of God's intentions for the future.
• Matthew 5:1-2 exemplifies this, comparing Moses ascending the mountain to Jesus teaching, and considering how to spiritually ascend to heaven.

Interpretive Approach Evolution

• A shift occurred from God as the divine author to human authors and from multiple meanings to singular meanings.
• Meaning is determined by the author's intention, which can be discerned through careful historical and linguistic investigation.
• Modern NT Interpretations (1500-1970) use historical/scientific standards to reconstruct authors' intended meanings and evaluate the truthfulness of NT's claims.
• Postmodern NT Interpretations (1970-Present) shift focus away from the author and toward the text or the reader.
• A focus on the text considers literary/artistic/persuasive structures to find meaning.
• Interpreters study the languages, rhetoric, and other literary features.
• A focus on the reader argues meaning is produced as the reader engages with the texts.
• Interpreters arrive at a unique meaning as they engage the text.

Ancient Literature & Resources

• Ancient literature is version of the Old Testament, OT Deuterocanonical Books/Apocrypha, OT Pseudepigrapha & Dead Sea Scrolls.
• It helps see how NT's quotations/interpretations of OT passages compare to various versions of OT (Acts 15:14-17, Amos 9:11-12 [MT], Amos 9:11-12 [LXX]).
• Additionally helping understand Jewish history/belief between return from exile and birth of Jesus (e.g. Maccabean Revolt, messianic hopes, Roman Jewish tensions).
• OT Pseudepigrapha include "The souls of the righteous are in the hand of God...They seem to have died...but they are at peace...Their hope is full of immortality" (Wisdom of Solomon 3:1-4).
• The OT Pseudepigrapha gives insight into the community at Qumrān and wider spectrum of ancient Jewish belief and practice - Set of Jewish manuscripts
• Writings of Philo (relevance of OT integration.
• Writing of Josephus - best historical source on First Roman-Jewish War, Pharisees and Sadducees
• Rabbinis Literature (gives insight on Jewish methods of legal/scriptural interpretation) Luke 14:5-6, b. Yoma 84b
• Apostolic Fathers and Other Church Fathers, including Nag Hammadi Codices/Gnostic Texts and New Testament Apocrypha provide insight to the earliest reflections of Christian life outside the New Testament & a diversity of Early Christian beliefs and traditions, especially about Jesus

Resources

• Bible dictionaries and encyclopedias
• New testament introductions & Commentaries
• Word Biblical Commentary, NT Library, Hermeneia, International Critical Commentary (*use multiple commentaries for exegesis)
• Monographs (books by one author examining a specific subject in detail) EX. WUNT, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, BZNW, Biblical Interpretation
• Essay Collections & Gospel Synopsis

Historical Criticism

• Historical Criticism is an umbrella term for approaches to biblical interpretation that explore various aspects of the historical world “behind the text"

Value of Historical Criticism

• Historical criticism takes seriously the historical character and context and protect against anachronistic misinterpretations
• Historical criticism provides concrete grounding for theological claims enabling interpreters to participate in broader societal and academic conversations.
• Political/military history, geography, material culture, language/linguistics, literature, education, social customs/norms, economics/class structure, religion/philosophy determine what is behind the text.”

Temple / Priesthood

• Built in late 500s BCE, expanded by Herod the Great in 20s/10s BCE (Second Temple).
• Includes Central sanctuary, Inner court/altar, Second court and Outer court.
• Ritually impure barred from entire temple complex.
• Those with disabilities barred from the inner court/altar.
• Temple possessed considerable wealth funded by taxes and offerings.
• By the first century CE, the high priests were political appointees
• NT examples include, Blind and lame came to Jesus & Was Jesus on the outer court?.

Synagogues

• Originated in Jewish diaspora communities and accessible to everyone.
• Accessible to women, Gentiles, and those with disabilities
• Not ‘ethnically separated.'

Pharisees

• Believe in balance between God's providence and human free will

Essenes

• Believe human free will outweighs God's providential control and affirmation, living with in communities

Sanhedrin

• Suggests in was made up of priests, Sadducees, and Pharisees
• Mark 11:18, Mark 14:11
• Historical Criticism, Pt. 2 and various others aspects.
• An uncircumcised Jew is 'destined to be destroyed"

Sabbath

• Necessity of resting on Saturday is justified both by God and need for compassion

Pantheon and Religion

• Each god oversee specific aspects of reality/life & Private/household religious practices included

Civic Religion and Temples

• Communal worship took place at temples dedicated to the various gods.

Greek Philosophy

• Plato taught that the material world is an illusory shadow of a higher reality & believes that the soul is comprised of matter, and that therefore the soul is not immortal"

Economics and Class

• Small tier of wealthy and powerful families/individuals who controlled most of the resources

Agrarian Society

• Economy of Roman-controlled Galilee and Judea was largely based on agriculture

Taxes and Tolls

• In Judea/Galilee paid to Roman Government

Slavery

• Greco-Roman slavery was not race-based in the NT
• In the Greco-Roman World, society promoted patriarchal values, and women were often subordinated to the authority of their father, then their husband

Source Criticism

• Definition - examines NT texts in an attempt to identify the sources used to put them together.

Sources

• Identifying which NT documents have used others as sources helps us place them in chronological sequence

Source Criticism

• The attempt to determine the nature of the literary relationships among the hree Synoptic Gospels.

Mark

• Mark is the shortest Synoptic Gospel; Luke is the longest.

Synoptic Theories

• Augustine, Griesbach Hypothesis & Farrer Hypothesis

Form Criticism

• Attempts to reconstruct how oral traditions about Jesus were developed and used

Major Categories of Gospel Forms

• Miracle, Pronouncement Stories & Similitudes

Redaction Criticism

• Definition - examines the editorial activities of NT authors How an author has edited/modified their sources

Theories

• Griesbach & Two-Source & and Farrer

Redactional

• Emphasizes Jesus's persistent failures to understand Jesus

Matthews Royal Lineage

• Emphasizes Jesus's royal-messianic status and relation to David

Luke

• Emphasizes Jesus's concern for socially marginal people, the poor, widows, tax collectors, prostitutes, Samaritans, etc