New Englishes by Platt, Weber and Ho
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Questions and Answers

According to O’Barr and Atkins, language differences are ______ specific.

situation

Lakoff proposed that there were ten basic ______ differences between men and women in speech.

speech

O’Barr and Atkins studied ______ cases for 30 months.

courtroom

Empty adjectives and hedges are examples of “women’s language” ______.

<p>components</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the researchers, the women who used the lowest frequency of women’s language traits had an unusually high ______.

<p>status</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wareing’s theory is about ______ in language.

<p>power</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fairclough’s theory about power in discourse is about how language reflects ______ relationships between speakers.

<p>power</p> Signup and view all the answers

When a person becomes a member of a professional community, they acquire language features of the ______.

<p>group</p> Signup and view all the answers

The term “discourse communities” was made to emphasize the importance of ______ in their constitution.

<p>language</p> Signup and view all the answers

Swales is associated with the concept of ______ communities.

<p>discourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Diversity Approach by William O’Barr and Bowman Atkins?

<p>Language differences are situation-specific, relying on who has the authority and power in a conversation, rather than the gender of the people involved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of O’Barr and Atkins' 30-month study?

<p>Courtroom cases, examining the speech of witnesses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a 'women's language' component, according to Lakoff?

<p>Hedges, empty adjectives, super-polite forms, apologizing more, speaking less frequently, avoiding coarse grammar and punctuation, indirect requests, and using tone to emphasize certain words.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of O’Barr and Atkins' study regarding the relationship between language and power?

<p>The quoted speech patterns were neither characteristic of all women, nor limited to only women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wareing, what are the three types of power in language?

<p>Personal, Political, and Social Group power.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Norman Fairclough's theory of Power behind Discourse?

<p>How the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry or difference.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a professional community that shares specialist knowledge and uses a specialist lexis?

<p>Discourse community.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Norman Fairclough's theory of Power in Discourse?

<p>How language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the study by O’Barr and Atkins in the context of language and power?

<p>It challenges the idea that language differences are due to gender, and instead highlights the role of power dynamics in shaping language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of individuals who used the lowest frequency of 'women's language' traits in O’Barr and Atkins' study?

<p>They had an unusually high status, were well-educated, and had middle-class backgrounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lakoff proposed that language differences are due to gender.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

O’Barr and Atkins concluded that the quoted speech patterns were characteristic of all women.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wareing, power in language is related to occupation or role.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fairclough's theory is about how language reflects social relationships between speakers.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

A discourse community is a group of people who share the same interests.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

O’Barr and Atkins' study found that men and women use language in the same way.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fairclough's theory of Power behind Discourse focuses on how a speaker's current situation affects their power asymmetry.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Swales is associated with the concept of language communities.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Diversity Approach states that language differences are due to social variables such as class and age.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wareing's theory states that there are two types of power in language.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of O’Barr and Atkins' 30-month study?

<p>To examine the relationship between language and power in courtroom cases</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Diversity Approach?

<p>That language differences are situation-specific and due to power dynamics</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wareing, what type of power is held by politicians?

<p>Political power</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a professional community that shares specialist knowledge and uses a specialist lexis?

<p>Discourse community</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of O’Barr and Atkins' study regarding the relationship between language and power?

<p>Language differences are situation-specific and due to power dynamics</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of 'women's language' components, according to Lakoff?

<p>Hedges and empty adjectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Fairclough, how does language reflect power relationships?

<p>Through the use of language that reflects power asymmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the study by O’Barr and Atkins in the context of language and power?

<p>It challenged the idea that language differences are due to gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of individuals who used the lowest frequency of 'women's language' traits in O’Barr and Atkins' study?

<p>They were all well-educated professionals with middle-class backgrounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Norman Fairclough's theory of Power behind Discourse?

<p>How the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of avoiding slang and coarse language in communication?

<p>To show respect to the listener</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key finding of O’Barr and Atkins' study on language and power?

<p>That power and authority affect language use</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the way language is used to reflect power relationships between speakers?

<p>Power in Discourse</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of a discourse community?

<p>A professional community that shares specialist knowledge and uses a specialist lexis</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Norman Fairclough's theory of Power behind Discourse?

<p>How a speaker's current situation affects their power asymmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of O’Barr and Atkins' study in the context of language and power?

<p>It challenges the idea that language differences are due to gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Diversity Approach by William O’Barr and Bowman Atkins?

<p>That language differences are situation-specific and rely on power and authority</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a 'women's language' component, according to Lakoff?

<p>Using empty adjectives and hedges</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Wareing, what type of power is held by teachers?

<p>Personal power</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Norman Fairclough's theory of Power in Discourse?

<p>How language reflects power relationships between speakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

New Englishes

  • Coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries through government administration, education, and media
  • Exist alongside local languages and serve as a common medium for communication (lingua franca)
  • Each variety has developed its own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax

Language Imperialism

  • Described by Robert Philipson as the dominance of one language over another
  • Causes the imperial language to gain control over a country's political, economic, and social institutions
  • Leads to the decline and death of a native language, resulting in cultural impoverishment

Conversational Maxims (Paul Grice, 1975)

  • Underlying principle of cooperative conversation
  • Four maxims:
    • Quantity: Be informative, but not too informative
    • Relation: Be relevant
    • Quality: Be truthful and have evidence
    • Manner: Avoid ambiguity, be brief, and be polite

Conversational Face (Erving Goffman, 1967; Brown and Levinson, 1987)

  • Central to the cooperative principle of conversation
  • Sense of one's own linguistic image and worth
  • Positive politeness: Being complimentary to make the listener feel good
  • Negative politeness: Mitigating a request or situation to avoid restricting someone's freedom

Politeness Principle (Robin Lakoff)

  • Three maxims for polite speech:
    • Don't impose
    • Give options
    • Make the receiver feel good

Theories of Language and Thought

  • Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of general reasoning ability
  • Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): Language acquisition is through observation and imitation
  • Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): Language and self-identity come from experience, not innate ideas
  • Innatism (Plato, ~300 BCE; Descartes, ~1620): The mind is born with ideas, including language
  • Nativism (Noam Chomsky): Genetic abilities enable language development

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • Language directly shapes thought and influences worldview
  • Criticisms: flawed data collection, Whorf's reasoning, and the idea that language only reflects thought
  • Boas-Jakobson Principle: Every thought can be expressed in every language, with differing required information

Other Theories

  • Communication Accommodation Theory (Howard Giles, 1973): Individuals change speech to accommodate others
  • Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): Men and women have different conversational styles
  • Standpoint Theory (Harding and Wood, 1970s-1980s): Studies on women should be from a woman's point of view
  • Muted Group Theory (Shirley and Edwin Ardener, 1975; Cheris Kramarae, 1975): Dominant groups silence minority voices### Language and Gender
  • The Difference Approach suggests that men and women have different lifestyles and communication styles, leading to different modes of communication and language use.
  • The Deficit Approach, proposed by Otto Jespersen, suggests that women's language is inferior to men's language, citing differences in vocabulary, grammar, and syntax.
  • According to Jespersen, women's language is characterized by:
    • Using half-finished sentences
    • Linking sentences with "and"
    • Using adjectives like "pretty" and "nice"
    • Using adverbs frequently
    • Having a smaller vocabulary than men
    • Being more fluent in speaking but less hesitant than men
  • The Dominance Theory, proposed by Robin Lakoff, suggests that language is fundamental to gender inequality and that women's language is weaker and less certain than men's language.
  • Lakoff's theory suggests that women's language is characterized by:
    • Speaking less frequently
    • Using minimal responses like "mm" and "yeah"
    • Speaking more quietly and using a higher pitch range
    • Using hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
    • Using question intonation in declarative statements
    • Overusing qualifiers like "I think" and "sort of"
    • Apologizing more frequently
    • Using tag questions like "You're going to dinner, aren't you?"
  • The Diversity Approach, proposed by William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, suggests that language differences are situation-specific and depend on who has the authority and power in a conversation, rather than gender.

Theories of Power in Language

  • There are three types of power: personal, political, and social group power.
  • Power behind discourse refers to how the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry.
  • Power in discourse refers to how language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.
  • Discourse communities refer to groups of people who share a set of values and specialist knowledge, and acquire language features of the group.

Language and Culture

  • New Englishes refer to varieties of English that have developed in different countries through government administration, education, and media.
  • Language Imperialism refers to the dominance of one language over another, which can lead to the decline and death of a language and its culture.

Conversational Maxims and Conversational Face

  • The cooperative principle is the underlying principle of conversation, where speakers wish to express relevant information in a clear manner.
  • Conversational maxims include:
    • Make your contribution to the conversation as informative as necessary
    • Be relevant
    • Do not say what you believe to be false
    • Avoid obscurity of expression
    • Avoid ambiguity
    • Be brief
    • Be orderly
  • Conversational face refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth, and how it can be threatened or supported in conversation.

Theories of Language and Thought

  • Theories of language and thought suggest that language shapes our thoughts and perceptions of the world.
  • The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that the words and grammar of a language directly shape the thoughts of its speakers.
  • Other theories of language and thought include:
    • Historical Background Theory
    • Behaviourism Theory
    • Empiricism
    • Innatism
    • Nativism### Linguistic Relativity and Determinism
  • The Sapir-Whorf Language and Thought Hypothesis suggests that language influences thought and perception.
  • There are two main ideas: linguistic determinism (language determines thought) and linguistic relativity (language influences thought, but does not determine it).

Criticisms of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • Whorf's examples of language differences were flawed, and his reasoning was later disputed.
  • The Boas-Jakobson principle states that every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in the information they require speakers to mention.

Alternative Theories

  • Universalism: language is a reflection of human thought, and all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.
  • Communication Accommodation Theory: individuals adjust their speech to accommodate others.
  • Genderlect Theory: men and women have different conversational styles, with men being more assertive and women being more cooperative.

Theories of Gender and Language

  • Standpoint Theory: studies of women should be practiced from a woman's point of view.
  • Muted Group Theory: minorities have less power and are silenced, and women are often dominated by male status and power.

Dominance and Difference Approaches

  • Dominance Approach: men are naturally more dominant than women, and women act in a less dominant way around men.
  • Difference Approach: men and women have different lifestyles and communication styles, and language is used for different outcomes.

Deficit Approach

  • Otto Jespersen's theory: women speak more, but men have a larger vocabulary and are more precise in their language use.

Dominance Theory

  • Robin Lakoff's theory: language is fundamental to gender inequality, and women's language use is characterized by features such as hedges, empty adjectives, and super-polite forms.

Diversity Approach

  • William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins' theory: language differences are situation-specific, and power relationships between speakers affect language use.

Theories about Power in Language

  • Language and Power: there are three types of power - personal, political, and social group.
  • Power behind Discourse: the current situation of speakers affects power asymmetry.
  • Power in Discourse: language used reflects power relationships between speakers.
  • Discourse Communities: language is used to construct and maintain professional communities.

New Englishes

  • The term "New Englishes" was coined by Platt, Weber, and Ho to describe varieties of English developed in different countries through government administration, education, and media.
  • Each variety of New English has its own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.

Language Imperialism

  • Language Imperialism is the dominance of one language over another, as described by Robert Philipson.
  • This dominance leads to the control of a country's political, economic, and social institutions.
  • The decline and death of a language also results in the impoverishment of its culture and those who speak it as their mother tongue.

Conversational Maxims

  • Paul Grice established the cooperative principle in 1975, which involves expressing relevant information in a clear manner.
  • The maxims of conversation are:
    • Quantity: Be as informative as necessary, but not more.
    • Relation: Be relevant.
    • Quality: Be truthful and have evidence.
    • Manner: Be clear, polite, and respectful.

Conversational Face

  • The concept of conversational face, introduced by Erving Goffman in 1967, refers to each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth.
  • Face-threatening acts can be managed through strategies such as positive politeness (e.g., compliments) and negative politeness (e.g., mitigating requests).

Theories of Language and Thought

  • Main theories:
    • Historical Background Theory (Descartes): Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.
    • Behaviourism Theory (John Watson): Language acquisition is directly related to the child's observation and imitation of those around them.
    • Empiricism (John Locke): Our sense of self-identity and knowledge of language come from our senses and experiences.
    • Innatism (Plato and Descartes): The human brain is born with innate ideas and the ability to master language complexities.
    • Nativism (Noam Chomsky): The Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language, which interacts with childhood experiences to produce language and a sense of self.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • The hypothesis, developed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, suggests that the words and grammar of a language directly shape the thoughts of its speakers.
  • Criticisms of the hypothesis include flaws in data collection and conclusion-drawing.

Other Theories of Language and Thought

  • The Boas-Jakobson Principle: In theory, every thought can be expressed in every language, albeit with differing required information.
  • Universalism: Language is a reflection of human thoughts, and all languages share patterns and concepts.
  • Communication Accommodation Theory: Individuals change their speech to accommodate others during interactions.
  • The Genderlect Theory: Men and women have different conversational styles, with men focusing on giving and receiving information and women focusing on building relationships.

Theories of Gender and Language

  • Standpoint Theory: Studies about women should be practiced from the point of view of women.
  • The Muted Group Theory: Certain minorities in a society have less power and are silenced as a result.
  • Dominance Approach: Men are naturally more dominant than women, and women acquiesce.
  • Difference Approach: Men and women have fundamentally different lifestyles and modes of communication.
  • Deficit Approach: Women's language is perceived as inferior to men's language.

Other Theories

  • Robin Lakoff's Dominance Theory: Language contributes to gender inequality, and women's language is perceived as weaker and less certain than men's language.### Language and Gender Stereotypes

  • Women tend to use declarative statements as questions, expressing uncertainty.

  • They often use qualifiers (e.g., "I think that…"), and hedge with phrases like "sort of" and "kind of".

  • Women use super-polite forms (e.g., "Would you mind…"), and apologize more frequently.

  • They often use tag questions (e.g., "You're going to dinner, aren't you?").

Lexical Features

  • Women tend to use more words for colors, while men use more sports-related terms.
  • They use empty adjectives (e.g., "divine", "lovely", "adorable") and make more emotional evaluations.
  • Women use more intensifiers (e.g., "especially so" and "very"), and describe approximate amounts with adjectives (e.g., "around", "about").

Speech Patterns

  • Women tend to use more euphemisms, diminutives, and reduplicated forms (e.g., "itsy bitsy", "teeny weeny").
  • They use direct quotation more often, and prefer modal constructions (e.g., "can", "would", "should", "ought").
  • Women use indirect commands and requests (e.g., "My, isn't it cold in here?"), and avoid slang and coarse language.

The Diversity Approach

  • O'Barr and Atkins (1980) challenged Lakoff's theory that language differences are solely due to gender.
  • They found that language differences are situation-specific, relying on power and authority in a conversation.
  • The researchers observed that "women's language" components (e.g., hedges, empty adjectives, super-polite forms) are not unique to women, but rather to those who are powerless.

Theories about Power in Language

  • Wareing proposes three types of power: personal, political, and social group power.
  • Norman Fairclough's "Power behind Discourse" suggests that the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry.
  • "Power in Discourse" examines how language reflects power relationships between speakers.
  • Swales' "Discourse Communities" highlights the importance of language in professional communities, where members acquire language features and specialist knowledge.

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This quiz covers the concept of 'New Englishes', a term coined by Platt, Weber and Ho to describe varieties of English that have developed in different countries. Learn about how English has become a lingua franca in these areas, alongside local languages.

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